THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT  OF 

Zoology  Department 


GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 


GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

THE 
HISTORY,   ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS 


OF 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY 


BY 

JAMES  E.  RUSSELL,  PH.D.,  LL.D. 

DEAN  OF  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   AND  BARNARD   PROFESSOR  OF   EDUCATION, 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY,   NEW  YORK 


NEW  EDITION 
NEW  IMPRESSION 


LONGMANS,  GREEN  AND  CO. 

FOURTH  AVENUE  &  SOrn  STREET,  NEW  YORK 

39  PATERNOSTER  ROW,  LONDON 

BOMBAY,  CALCUTTA,   AND  MADRAS 

1916 


COPYRIGHT,  1808,  BT 
LONGMANS,  GREEN,  AND  CO. 


All  rights  reterved. 


First  Edition,  January,  1899. 

Reprinted,  September,  1901,  and  February,  1903. 

Second  Edition,  with  additions  and  revisions,  September,  1905. 

Reprinted  August,  1907,  September,  1910. 

June,  1913,  June,  1916 


LA 


PREFACE 

No  apology  is  necessary,  I  assume,  in  presenting  to  the 
reading  public  a  book  on  the  secondary  schools  of  Germany. 
For  many  years  American  educators  have  drawn  professional 
inspiration  from  German  sources,  and  more  recently  it  has 
become  apparent  that  German  ideas  are  taking  root  in  British 
soil.  The  history,  organization  and  methods  of  the  German 
elementary  schools  are  generally  well  understood.  We  have 
grown  familiar  with  the  German  universities  and  have  prof- 
ited not  a  little  from  the  relationship.  But  very  little  has 
been  written  in  English  on  the  secondary  education  which  is 
the  foundation  of  the  German  university  training  and  the 
basis  of  all  professional  service  in  the  Fatherland.  Yet  it  is 
precisely  in  this  sphere  that  German  education  can  be  studied 
to  best  advantage,  and  from  it  we  have  most  to  learn. 

The  Regents  of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  at 
Convocation  in  July,  1893,  appointed  me  their  European 
Commissioner,  and  shortly  afterwards  I  was  made  Special 
Agent  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  of  the  United  States  for 
the  study  and  investigation  of  German  schools.  These  keys 
unlocked  all  doors.  During  the  two  years  which  I  spent  in 
Germany  I  visited  more  than  forty  towns  and  cities  in  order 
personally  to  acquaint  myself  with  school  affairs.  By  force 
of  circumstances  my  attention  was  directed  chiefly  to  the 
schools  of  central  and  northern  Germany.  It  happens,  there- 
fore, that  this  study  in  concerned  principally  with  the  schools 


Ti  PREFACE 

of  Prussia.  But  as  Prussia  is  the  larger  part  of  the  Empire 
both  in  area  and  population,  and  by  far  the  most  important 
state  politically  in  the  Confederation,  it  is  doing  no  great  in- 
justice to  consider  German  schools  from  the  Prussian  stand- 
point. 

A  foreign  institution,  however  simple  it  appears  to  the 
casual  observer,  presents  a  wonderful  complexity  to  the  stu- 
dent. And  the  longer  he  studies  the  more  complex  it  grows. 
After  a  six  months'  residence  abroad  I  was  more  confident  of 
my  ability  to  interpret  the  German  school  system  than  I  am 
now,  at  the  end  of  almost  five  years'  continuous  study  and 
investigation.  No  one  of  my  readers,  I  am  sure,  can  be  more 
dissatisfied  than  I  am  myself  with  this  attempt  to  portray 
German  ideals  and  German  methods.  The  subject  is  too  im- 
portant to  be  lightly  treated  and  too  extensive  to  be  under- 
stood on  short  acquaintance.  I  trust,  however,  that  my 
work  may  lighten  the  labours  of  other  students  in  this  field 
and  prove  to  be  of  some  practical  worth  to  educators. 

Sermonizing  on  the  basis  of  foreign  customs  is  always  of 
doubtful  expediency.  It  is,  indeed,  questionable  whether 
there  is  anything  peculiar  to  the  German  theory  and  practice 
of  teaching  which  is  directly  applicable  to  British  or  Amer- 
ican conditions.  Each  nation  must  educate  itself  in  its  own 
way  and  for  its  own  ends.  The  chief  value  of  foreign  exam- 
ples consists  in  a  rational  understanding  of  the  foreign  way 
of  adapting  means  to  ends  in  the  realization  of  great 
ideals.  In  this  work,  therefore,  I  have  studiously  resisted 
the  temptation  to  point  out  the  moral  of  every  tale.  The 
intelligent  reader  is  capable  of  drawing  his  own  conclusions  ; 
he  who  reads  merely  to  imitate  needs  no  encouragement. 

It  has  been  my  aim  to  make  each  chapter  as  complete  in  it- 
self as  possible,  even  at  the  risk  of  some  repetition  of  impor- 
tant facts.  References  have  been  cited  in  foot-notes  wherever 
it  has  seemed  necessary  to  refer  to  original  documents  or  au- 


PREFACE  vii 

thorities  of  consequence.  At  the  end  of  each  chapter  I  have 
appended  a  short  bibliographical  list,  through  which  students 
may  easily  acquaint  themselves  with  the  literature  of  the 
various  topics.  In  the  space  at  my  disposal  it  would  mani- 
festly be  impossible  to  cite  all  that  has  been  written.  Com- 
plete bibliographies  will  generally  be  found  in  the  Hand-books 
and  Encyclopedias  mentioned  in  the  lists  of  "  general  refer- 
ences." The  chapters  dealing  with  methods  of  instruction, 
the  progress  of  school  reform  and  the  merits  and  defects  of 
the  German  system,  are  obviously  little  dependent  on  books, 
except  as  they  may  serve  to  present  other  points  of  view. 

The  study  as  a  whole,  while  demanding  some  familiarity 
with  books,  is  much  more  indebted  to  the  personal  factor. 
Without  the  acquaintance  and  assistance  of  many  German 
educationists  it  would  have  remained  impossible  for  me  to 
interpret  the  mass  of  material  that  has  come  to  my  hands.  I 
cannot  speak  too  highly  of  the  many  favours  which  were  so 
freely  extended  to  a  very  inquisitive  and  persistent  stranger. 
The  men  whom  I  most  wanted  to  consult  were  men  fully 
occupied  in  places  of  great  responsibility,  but  I  could  always 
count  on  a  generous  allotment  of  their  time.  To  some  of 
these  friends  I  am  indebted  not  only  for  personal  interviews, 
but  also  for  searching  criticisms  of  parts  of  my  manuscript. 
It  is  not  their  fault  if  I  have  gone  astray  ;  any  errors  of  fact 
or  judgment  herein  contained  are  my  own. 

I  desire  especially  to  acknowledge  my  obligations  to  Ober- 
schulrat  Dr.  Waetzoldt,  of  Magdeburg ;  Professor  Urtel,  in- 
spector of  schools  in  Weimar ;  Drs.  Muff  and  Quiehl,  school 
directors  in  Cassel ;  Drs.  Reinhardt  and  Walter,  school  direc- 
tors in  Frankfort-am-Main  ;  Dr.  G.1  Richter,  gymnasial  rector 
in  Jena ;  Dr.  Wernekke,  director  of  the  Realgymnasium  in 
Weimar ;  Dr.  Fries,  director  of  the  Franckesche  Stiftungen 
in  Halle ,  Drs.  Richter  and  Wychgram,  directors  of  second- 
ary schools  in  Leipsic ;  Dr.  Hausknecht,  school  director  in 


viii  PREFACE 

Berlin  ;  and  Professor  Rein  of  the  University  of  Jena,  Pro- 
fessor Volkelt  of  Leipsic,  Professor  Paulsen  of  Berlin  and 
Professor  Schiller  of  Giessen.  My  thanks  are  due  also  to  Mr. 
Edgar  Kesner  and  Mr.  W.  M.  Shafer,  former  students  of 
mine  in  the  University  of  Colorado,  for  clerical  assistance, 
and  to  my  colleague,  Mr.  Walter  H.  Nichols,  who  has  kindly 
prepared  the  index  to  this  volume. 

J.  K.  K. 
NEW  YORK,  December,  1898. 


PREFACE    TO    THE   SECOND   EDITION 

A  NEW  edition  of  German  Higher  Schools  gives  the  oppor- 
tunity to  correct  typographical  errors  and  to  add  a  chapter 
on  the  accomplishments  of  the  past  decade.  A  revision  of 
certain  chapters  might  be  more  agreeahle  to  the  general 
reader,  but  to  the  student  of  educational  administration  the 
progress  of  school  reform  in  Germany  is  more  clearly  re- 
vealed by  contrasting  the  new  order  with  that  in  force  ten 
years  ago.  A  comprehensive  bibliography  of  recent  litera- 
ture follows  the  new  chapter  and  the  appendix  supplies  in- 
formation on  recent  official  decrees  and  statistics. 

In  bringing  this  work  down  to  date  I  beg  to  acknowledge 
the  generous  assistance  of  Professor  Dr.  Bahlsen,  Commis- 
sioner in  charge  of  the  German  Educational  Exhibit  at  St. 
Louis,  in  supplying  official  documents  and  securing  necessary 
information.  I  am  also  deeply  indebted  to  a  student  of 
mine  in  Teachers  College,  Dr.  Edward  E.  Rail,  now  Instruc- 
tor in  Education,  University  of  Texas,  who  has  prepared  the 
tables  in  the  appendix  and  collaborated  with  me  in  writing 
the  final  chapter. 

J.  E.  R. 

NEW  YORK,  July,  1905. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 

PA8B 

BEGINNINGS  OF  GERMAN  SCHOOLS,      .....       1 


CHAPTER  II. 
THE  RISE  OF  PROTESTANT  SCHOOLS, 17 

CHAPTER  III. 
THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION 46 

CHAPTER  IV. 
THE  RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS,      .       .   '  76 

CHAPTER  V. 
THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOL  SYSTEM,  .       .       .       .       .       .108 

CHAPTER  VI. 
THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OF  PRUSSIA 121 

CHAPTER  VII. 
FOUNDATION  AND  MAINTENANCE  OF  HIGHER  SCHOOLS,     .    138 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

PAGE 

RULES,  REGULATIONS  AND  CUSTOMS, 156 


CHAPTER  IX. 
EXAMINATIONS  AND  PRIVILEGES, 175 

CHAPTER  X. 
STUDENT  LIFE  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS,  .....    194 

CHAPTER  XI. 
INSTRUCTION  IN  RELIGION 213 

CHAPTER  XII. 
[NSTRUCTION  IN  GERMAN 227 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
INSTRUCTION  IN  GREEK  AND  LATIN, 245 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  MODERN  LANGUAGES,        .       .       .    266 

CHAPTER  XV. 
INSTRUCTION  IN  HISTORY  AND  GEOGRAPHY,       .        .       .291 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
INSTRUCTION  IN  MATHEMATICS, 312 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES,   ....    329 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
THE  PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS,    .       .       .    352 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

APPOINTMENT,  PROMOTION  AND  EMOLUMENTS  OF  TEACH- 
ERS,         370 

CHAPTER  XX. 
TENDENCIES  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM, 388 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

MERITS  AND  DEFECTS  OF  GERMAN  SECONDARY  EDUCA- 
TION  406 

CHAPTER  XXII. 
THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM,  1898-1905  .  .     423 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  RECENT  WORKS  ON  SCHOOL  REFORM  .    455 

APPENDIX  A. 
THE  ROYAL  DECREE  OF  NOVEMBER  26, 1900     .        .        .461 

APPENDIX  B. 
CURRICULA  OF  PRUSSIAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OF  1901 .        .    464 

APPENDIX  C. 

THE  PRIVILEGED  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OF  GERMANY  IN  1903- 

1904  .  468 


Xll  CONTENTS 

APPENDIX  D. 

ra  TO  PRUSSIAN 
IN  1904 469 

APPENDIX  E. 

TABULAR  VIEW  OF  PRIVILEGES  IN  INDIVIDUAL  GERMAN 

STATES .471 

N. 

APPENDIX  F. 

SALARIES  OF   TEACHERS   IN   THE    HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OF 

GERMANY  IN  1904 472 

APPENDIX  G. 

PENSIONS   OF  TEACHERS  IN  THE    HIGHER   SCHOOLS   OF 

GERMANY  474 

APPENDIX  H. 
EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  GENERAL  PENSION  LAWS  OF  PRUSSIA  .  475 

INDEX  .  479 


GERMAN   HIGHER    SCHOOLS 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  schools  of  Germany  have  ever  been  a  means  to  the  re- 
alization of  the  highest  spiritual  ideals  of  the  German  people. 
They  were  called  into  existence  to  support  the 
tenets  of  the  Christian  faith,  and  upon  the 
union  of  Church  and  State  they  were  taken  over 
bodily  into  the  service  of  the  broader  national  life.  Hence 
the  clew  to  the  systematic  development  of  the  German  school 
system,  at  least  until  the  present  century,  must  be  sought  in 
the  religious  ideals  of  the  successive  periods  as  tempered  by 
the  prevailing  social,  economic  and  political  influences. 

As  long  as  the  only  classes  in  society  were  the  nobility  and 
the  peasantry  a  practical  training  in  the  arts  of  gaining  a 
livelihood,  of  making  war  and  of  diplomacy  suf- 

„,,-,  .!•/>    j         i       i  •  Influence  of  the 

need.     Custom,  modified  only  by  new  exigen-        church, 
cies,  afforded  all  the  discipline  needed  for  their 
mode  of  life.     But  a  new  era  dawned  with  the  introduction 
of  Christianity  in  the  eighth  century.      Columban  and  Boni- 
face began  their  missionary  work  from  the  west  and  sought 
to  convert  the  pagan  Germans.1     Monasteries  and  churches 

1  See  the  interesting  and  naive  Life  of  St  Columban,  by  the  Monk  Jonas 
(University  of  Pennsylvania,  Translations  and  Reprints  from  the  Original 
Sources  of  European  History,  Vol.  II.,  No.  7)  Oolumban  "feared  lest, 
ensnared  by  the  lusts  of  the  world,  he  should  in  vain  have  spent  so  much 

1 


2  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

were  founded  everywhere  in  order  to  make  sure  OL  the  con- 
version of  the  whole  country.  About  these  institutions  arose 
a  third  important  class,  the  clergy.  The  source  of  inspiration 
for  this  class  lay  outside  the  semi-barbarous  customs  of  the 
people  among  whom  they  lived.  The  nobles  and  peasants 
alike  were  ignorant  of  letters,  and  this  made  easy  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Latin  language  to  which  the  ecclesiastics,  as 
priests  and  missionaries  of  the  Koman  Church,  were  naturally 
partial.  The  progress  of  Christianity  was  conditioned  very 
largely  by  the  acceptance  of  the  Latin  language.  For  pur- 
poses of  international  communication,  too,  the  ability  to  use 
the  Latin  tongue  was  indispensable.  Here,  then,  were  condi- 
tions demanding  an  innovation  in  existent  educational  meth- 
ods ;  schools  were  founded  to  satisfy  these  demands. 

The  Church  alone  recognized  the  need  of  schools,  and 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages  all  instruction  proceeded  from 
the  clergy.  The  imparting  of  a  new  religion  and  a  new  cult- 
ure was  the  chief  motive  that  actuated  the  German  mission- 
aries. Monasteries  and  schools  grew  up  together.  The  ear- 
liest schools  were  under  the  direction  of  monastic  orders  or 
bishops  of  the  Church.  Their  aim  was  preparation  for  the 
priesthood. 

labour  on  grammar,  rhetoric,  geometry  and  the  Holy  Scriptures.  .  .  . 
Having  collected  a  band  of  brethren,  St.  Columban  asked  the  prayers 
of  all  that  he  might  be  assisted  in  his  coming  journey  and  that  he  might 
have  their  pious  aid.  So  he  started  out  in  the  twentieth  (or  thirtieth) 
year  of  his  life,  and  under  the  guidance  of  Christ  went  to  the  seashore 
with  twelve  companions.  Here  they  waited  to  see  if  the  mercy  of  the 
Almighty  would  allow  their  purpose  to  succeed,  and  learned  that  the  spirit 
of  the  all-merciful  Judge  was  with  them.  So  they  embarked,  and  began 
the  dangerous  journey  across  the  channel,  and  sailed  quickly  with  a  smooth 
sea  and  favourable  wind  to  the  coast  of  Brittany.  Here  they  rested  for 
awhile  to  recover  their  strength  and  discussed  their  plans  anxiously,  until 
finally  they  decided  to  enter  the  land  of  Gaul.  They  wanted  zealously  and 
shrewdly  to  inquire  into  the  disposition  of  the  inhabitants,  in  order  to 
remain  longer  if  they  found  they  could  sow  the  seeds  of  salvation ;  or,  in 
case  they  found  the  hearts  of  the  people  in  darkness,  go  on  to  the  nearest 
nations." 


BEGINNINGS  OF  GERMAN  SCHOOLS  3 

Of  the  early  orders  the  Benedictines  were  most  devoted  to 
the  cause  of  education.  From  the  famous  monastery  of  Monte 
Casino,  for  the  administration  of  which  St. 
Benedict  prescribed  his  more  famous  rules  in  Benedictina 
529,1  there  proceeded  a  ray  of  light  down 
through  all  the  dark  ages.  The  Benedictine  monks,  though 
secluded  from  the  world,  found  eventually  within  claustral 
walls  a  little  world  of  their  own.2  The  duties  of  every  hour 
were  carefully  enjoined,  and  to  a  strict  religious  life  under 
vows  of  poverty,  chastity  and  obedience  were  added  the  de- 
mands of  manual  labour  and  the  duty  of  instructing  the  young. 
The  example  of  Cassiodorus,  tne  prime  minister  of  Theodoric 
the  Great,  who  retired  about  540  to  a  monastery,  and  there 
devoted  his  life  to  literary  pursuits,  had  a  wholesome  influence 
on  the  ecclesiastics  of  his  day.  The  rapid  growth  of  religious 
orders  and  the  accumulation  of  property  required  no  little 
administrative  ability.  This  led  eventually  to  many  monks 
becoming  learned  men  ;  in  every  monastery  some  scholars 
were  a  necessity.  And  with  the  development  of  the  idea  that 
the  Church  was  the  Kingdom  of  God  on  Earth,  the  Benedic- 
tines became  the  tools  of  the  Bishops  of  Home  in  conquering 
the  world. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  great  apostle  to  the  Ger- 
mans, the  Anglo-Saxon  Winfried,  better  known  as  St.  Boni- 
face, introduced  the  monastic  rules  of  St.  Benedict  through- 
out Germany.  The  labours  of  the  Irish  missionaries  early  in 
the  seventh  century  had  been  restricted  to  southern  Germany 
and  Switzerland.  But  they  founded  there  monastic  schools, 
notably  Reichenau  and  St.  Gall,  which  became  the  models  of 
all  northern  Europe.  Boniface,  a  century  later,  received  a 
commission  from  the  Pope  (718),  to  Christianize  and  Roman- 

1  Henderson,  Select  Historical  Documents  of  the  Middle  Ages,  London, 
1892,  gives  an  English  translation  of  "  The  Rule  of  St.  Benedict."  See 
pp.  274-314. 

*  Putnam,  Books  and  Their  Makers  During  tne  Middle  Ages,  New  York, 
1896,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  106-145,  gives  an  account  of  the  literary  activities  of  the 
Benedictines. 


4  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ize  all  Germany.  The  results  of  his  labours  were  truly  marvel- 
lous ;  in  five  years  he  had  succeeded  in  planting  the  standard 
of  Rome  in  all  parts  of  Thuringia  and  Hesse,  and  as  strong- 
holds of  the  faith  cloisters  grew  up  under  his  fostering  care. 
In  732  he  was  made  archbishop,  the  head  of  an  ecclesiastical 
system  including  many  bishoprics  and  important  clerical  in- 
stitutions. At  the  time  of  his  death  in  755  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic conquest  of  Germany  was  nearly  complete  ;  the  Bishop 
of  Rome  was  supreme.1  And  with  Roman  Catholicism  came 
the  elements  of  Latin  learning  and  the  culture  of  the  Church. 

Boniface  seems  to  have  been  not  less  interested  in  Roman- 
izing Germany  than  in  giving  the  youth  of  Germany  a  Christ- 
ian education.  The  German  abbeys  were  every 
one  °^  tnem  mission  schools.  The  enthusiasm 
of  the  great  apostle  inspired  his  disciples,  men 
and  women  alike,  to  heroic  efforts.  The  monasteries  of  Fitz- 
lar,  Biiraburg,  Heidesheim,  Eichstatt,  Erfurt  and  Fulda,  and 
the  nunneries  of  Bischofsheim,  Kitzingen  and  Ochsenfurt, 
were  centres  of  educational  influence,  training-schools  for 
native  missionaries. 

The  aim  of  these  schools  was  naturally  enough  to  promote 
the  work  of  the  Church.  Boys  of  five  to  seven  years  of  age 
were  dedicated  to  the  holy  office  and  reared  within  convent 
walls.  The  church  language  and  singing  stood  first  in  a 
curriculum  theoretically  composed  of  the  Trivinm — grammar, 
rhetoric  and  dialectic ;  and  of  the  Q.uadrivium — arithmetic, 
geometry,  astronomy  and  music.  Upon  these  seven  liberal 
arts,  as  on  seven  impregnable  pillars,  the  superstructure, 
theology,  was  built.2 

Under  the  influence  of  Charles  the  Great  and  Alcuin,  edu- 
cational ideals  ceased  to  be  exclusively  ecclesiastical.  The 
purpose  of  the  schools  became  something  more  than  that  of 
preparation  for  the  priesthood.  A  dawning  national  self- 

1  The  Councilium  Germanicum  recognized  the  Roman  Pontiff  as  head 
of  the  Church  in  748. 

1  Cf.  Schiller,  Getchichtc  der  Padagogik  :  Die  Klosterschulen,  Leipzig. 
1894,  p.  35  £. 


BEGINNINGS  OF  GERMAN  SCHOOLS  5 

consciousness  led  to  a  dream  of  Empire,  but  an  Empire  in 

harmony  with  the  Church.     Those  who  aspired  to  the  rule 

of  the  Roman  Empire  must  needs  be  somewhat 

acquainted  with  Roman  learning.     Hence  the 

rise  of  the  "  Palace  School "  at  the  court  of 

Charles  the  Great,  the  pioneer  school  for  the  nobles  of  the 

realm.1 

The  task  of  Alcuin  was  nothing  less  than  the  introduction 
and  diffusion  of  learning  among  the  Franks,  a  task  of  no  lit- 
tle difficulty  when  we  consider  the  deplorable  . 
condition  of  education  consequent  on  the  bar- 
baric rule  of  the  Merovingian  kings.  The  church  schools 
were  no  longer  the  seats  of  learning  ;  some  of  them  had  fallen 
a  prey  to  selfish  royal  favourites  ;  others  had  abandoned  them- 
selves to  the  lusts  of  the  flesh.  For  the  upbuilding  of  that 
"more  excellent  Athens/'  which  Alcuin  hoped  to  establish  in 
Frankland,  it  was  necessary  that  the  monastic  and  cathedral 
schools  be  reformed  and  enthused  with  new  life.2  More  than 
that,  the  common  people  would  have  to  be  rescued  from 
barbarism  and  raised  by  Christian  education  to  an  apprecia- 
tion of  Christian  citizenship.  The  famous  proclamation  of 
Charles,  issued  in  787  to  the  abbots  of  the  different  monas- 
teries, sometimes  called  the  first  general  charter  of  education 
for  the  Middle  Ages,  shows  clearly  the  intent  of  Alcuin  in 
regard  to  the  schools.  The  copy  addressed  to  Baugulf,  abbot 
of  Fulda,  runs  as  follows  : 

"  Be  it  known  to  your  devotion,  pleasing  to  God,  that  in 
conjunction  with  our  faithful  we  have  judged  it  to  be  of 
utility  that,  in  the  bishoprics  and  monasteries     Flrgt    neral 
committed  by  Christ's  favour  to  our  charge,  care      charter  of 
should  be'taken  that  there  shall  be  not  only  a 
regular  manner  of  life  and  one  conformable  to  holy  religion, 

1  Cramer,  Geschichte  der  Erziehung  und  des  Unterrichts  in  den  Nieder- 
landen  wdhrend  des  Mittelalters,  Stralsund,  1843,  gives  an  interesting  ac- 
count of  educational  progress  under  Charles  the  Great. 

9  See  G.  B.  Adams'  Civilization  During  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  163  ft. ; 
Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Empire,  ch.  v. ;  and  Oman's  The  Dirk  Ages,  p.  379  flf. 


6  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

but  also  the  study  of  letters,  each  to  teach  and  learn  them 
according  to  his  ability  and  the  divine  assistance.  For  even 
as  due  observance  of  the  rule  of  the  house  tends  to  good 
morals,  so  zeal  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and  the  taught  im- 
parts order  and  grace  to  sentences  ;  and  those  who  seek  to 
please  God  by  living  aright  should  also  not  neglect  to  please 
him  by  right  speaking.  It  is  written  '  by  thine  own  words 
shalt  thou  be  justified  or  condemned  ; '  and  although  right 
doing  be  preferable  to  right  speaking,  yet  must  the  knowl- 
edge of  what  is  right  precede  right  action.  Every  one,  there- 
fore, should  strive  to  understand  what  it  is  that  he  would 
fain  accomplish ;  and  this  right  understanding  will  be  the 
sooner  gained  according  as  the  utterances  of  the  tongue  are 
free  from  error.  And  if  false  speaking  is  to  be  shunned  by 
all  men,  especially  should  it  be  shunned  by  those  who  have 
elected  to  be  the  servants  of  the  truth.  During  past  years 
we  have  often  received  letters  from  different  monasteries  in- 
forming us  that  at  their  sacred  services  the  brethren  offered 
up  prayers  in  our  behalf  ;  and  we  have  observed  that  the 
thoughts  contained  in  these  letters,  though  in  themselves 
most  just,  were  expressed  in  uncouth  language,  and  while  pi- 
ous devotion  dictated  the  sentiments,  the  unlettered  tongue 
was  unable  to  express  them  aright.  Hence  there  has  arisen 
in  our  minds  the  fear  lest,  if  the  skill  to  write  rightly  were 
thus  lacking,  so  too  would  the  power  of  rightly  compre- 
hending the  Sacred  Scriptures  be  far  less  than  was  fitting, 
and  we  all  know  that,  though  verbal  errors  be  dangerous, 
errors  of  the  understanding  are  yet  more  so.  We  exhort  you, 
therefore,  not  only  not  to  neglect  the  study  of  letters,  but  to 
apply  yourself  thereto  with  perseverance  and  with  that  hu- 
mility which  is  well  pleasing  to  God  ;  so  that  you  may  be 
able  to  penetrate  with  greater  ease  and  certainty  the  myste- 
ries of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  For  as  these  contain  images, 
tropes  and  similar  figures,  it  is  impossible  to  doubt  that  the 
reader  will  arrive  far  more  readily  at  the  spiritual  sense  ac- 
cording as  he  is  the  better  instructed  in  learning.  Let  there, 
therefore,  be  chosen  for  this  work  men  who  are  able  and 


BEGINNINGS  OF  GERMAN  SCHOOLS  1 

willing  to  learn,  and  also  desirous  of  instructing  others  ;  and 
let  them  apply  themselves  to  the  .work  with  a  zeal  equalling 
the  earnestness  with  which  we  recommend  it  to  them. 

"  It  is  our  wish  that  you  may  be  what  it  behooves  the  sol- 
diers of  the  Church  to  be, — religious  in  heart,  learned  in  dis- 
course, pure  in  act,  eloquent  in  speech  ;  so  that  all  who  ap- 
proach your  house  in  order  to  invoke  the  Divine  Master  or  to 
behold  the  excellence  of  the  religious  life,  may  be  edified  in 
beholding  you  and  instructed  in  hearing  you  discourse  or 
chant,  and  may  return  home  rendering  thanks  to  God  most 
High. 

"  Fail  not,  as  thou  regardest  our  favour,  to  send  a  copy  of 
this  letter  to  all  thy  suffragans  and  to  all  the  monasteries  ; 
and  let  no  monk  go  beyond  his  monastery  to  administer  justice 
or  to  enter  the  assemblies  and  the  voting-places.  Adieu."1 

The  ideal  ecclesiastic  should  be  "  religious  in  heart,  learned 
in  discourse,  pure  in  act,  eloquent  in  speech,"  a  man  both 
"  able  and  willing  to  learn,  and  also  desirous  of  instructing 
others."  As  a  faithful  soldier  of  the  Church  it  is  incumbent 
on  him  to  see  to  it  that,  for  the  sake  of  a  right  comprehension 
of  the  mysteries  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  the  study  of  letters 
be  not  neglected.  Again  Charles  writes  : 

"  As  it  is  our  desire  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  Church, 
we  make  it  our  task  to  restore,  with  most  watchful  zeal,  the 
study  of  letters,  a  task  almost  forgotten  through  the  neglect 
of  our  ancestors.  We  therefore  enjoin  on  our  subjects,  so 
far  as  they  may  be  able,  to  study  the  liberal  arts,  and  we  set 
them  the  example."2 

The  immediate  effect  of  these  injunctions  was  a  quickened 
activity  in  the  old  church  schools  and  the  foundation  of  new 
ones.  Generally  speaking  the  sole  function  of  the  monastic 
and  cathedral  schools  had  been  hitherto  the  training  of 
churchmen  ;  the  doors  were  now  opened  to  laymen — but  can- 

1 1.  Migne,  Patrologia  Latina,  icviii.,  895.  Mullinger,  Schoolt  of  Charles 
the  Great,  97-99. 

*  Pertz,  Leges,  I.,  44.     Quoted  by  West,  Alcuin,  New  York,  1892,  p.  54. 


8  GERMAN  HIGHEH  SCHOOLS 

tiously.1  Boys  who  were  dedicated  to  the  monastic  life,  ob- 
lati,  were  trained  in  the  interior  school ;  the  exterior  school, 
Progress  under  outside  the  convent  walls,  was  reserved  for  the 
Charles  the  secular  clergy  and  laymen.2  The  cathedral 
schools  were  in  many  respects  similar  to  the 
exterior  schools  of  the  monasteries.  But  under  Charles  the 
Great  a  separation  was  commonly  made  between  the  eccle- 
siastical and  the  lay  students.  The  prevailing  ignorance, 
superstition  and  immorality  of  the  lower  priesthood,  which 
Charles  sought  to  correct,  was  due  in  part  to  lack  of  educa- 
tion and  in  part  to  the  custom  of  taking  candidates  from  the 
lowest  social  class,  very  often  from  among  the  serfs.  The 
remedy  for  this  evil  was  instruction  in  letters  and  a  life 
under  monastic  rule.  Hence  as  the  custom  arose  of  collect- 
ing all  the  clergy  of  a  diocese  about  the  bishop's 
schools*  church,  a  special  school  was  needed  for  the 
canons.  Herein  the  cathedral  schools  found 
their  chief  work,  but  as  a  rule  both  the  monastic  and  the  cathe- 
dral schools  were  also  open  to  those  who  had  no  intention  of 
leading  a  strictly  religious  life.  The  discipline  of  the  interni 
was  naturally  more  rigorous  than  that  of  the  externi,  and, 
too,  the  novices  were  taught  more  of  the  Scriptures,  more  of 
church  music  and  ritual.  But  the  course  of  study  for  be- 
ginners was  practically  the  same  for  all.  Pupils  were  ad- 
mitted when  about  seven  years  of  age.  Their  first  task  was 
to  commit  the  Latin  Psalter  to  memory.  Along  witli  this 
went  reading,  writing  and  a  little  arithmetic.  The  enforced 
use  of  the  Latin  language  at  all  times,  in  school  and  out, 
eventually  gave  them  a  second  mother -tongue.  To  make 
their  pupils  adepts  in  the  use  of  this  tongue  was,  next  to  a 
knowledge  of  Holy  Writ,  the  chief  aim  of  the  mediaeval 
schools.  As  a  means  to  this  end  Roman  authors,  especially 

1  Basiliu*,  bishop  of  Caesarea  in  Cappadocia  (370-379),  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  to  divide  the  cloistral  schools  into  schola  claustri  s.  interior 
and  schola  canonica  s.  exterior. 

*  See  Encyc.  Britan  ,  Vol.  I.,  under  "  Abbey  "  for  the  arrangement  at 
St.  Gall. 


&&GINNINQS  OF  GERMAN  SOHOOL8  § 

the  poets,  were  carefully  studied — not  for  what  they  said  so 
much  as  for  their  way  of  saying  it.  This  was  the  work  of 
grammar  and  rhetoric  ;  dialectics  seem  not  to  have  been 
much  in  evidence  except  in  the  greatest  schools.  Of  the 
Realien  the  only  subject  of  moment  was  music — church 
music  at  that.  Just  enough  arithmetic  was  taught  for  the 
computation  of  the  church  calendar.  It  will  be  seen,  there- 
fore, that  Latin  formed  the  main  part  of  the  curriculum — its 
prominence  being  due  to  the  fact  that  Latin  was  the  language 
of  the  Bible,  of  the  Church  and  the  learned  world.  Greek 
was  almost  unknown  in  Germany  ;  yet  not  wholly  lost,  as  a 
pupil  of  Swiss  Keichenau  (815-825)  tells  us  in  his  autobi- 
ography that  besides  Vergil,  Lucan,  Statins,  Cicero,  Quin- 
tilian,  Sallust,  Livy  and  other  so-called  sacred  and  scientific 
authors  he  mastered  several  books  of  Homer's  Iliad.1 

The  elevation  of  the  clergy  was  undoubtedly  hampered 
by  the  practice  of  drawing  recruits  largely  from  the  servile 
class.     Charles  insisted  that  candidates  for  the 
priesthood  should  be  taken  from  the  sons  of     ^c^^ 
freemen.      The  Church  was  the  light  of  the 
world  ;  its  representatives  should  be  men  capable  and  wor- 
thy of  their  high  office.     And  as  the  custodians  of  learning 
they  should  give  to  others  even  as  had  been  given  to  them. 
Not  only  in  the  monastic  and  cathedral  schools  were  teachers 
needed,  but  every  parish  priest  should  be  a  teacher  to  those 
about  him.     A  capitulary  of  802  enjoined  that  "everyone 
should  send  his  son  to  study  letters,  and  that  the  child  should 
remain  at  school  with  all  diligence  until  he  should  become 
well  instructed  in  learning."2 

The  most  notable  conception  of  Charles  and  Alcuin  was 
that  of  a  state  school  system,  a  system  that  provided  instruc- 
tion for  all  classes  of  society — nobles,  clergy  and  peasantry. 
From  the  "  Palace  School "  at  court  proceeded  that  influence 

1  Kellner,  Sketches  and  Pictures  of  Educational  History,  Essen,  1862, 
Vol.  I.,  p.  132.     Cf.  also  Ekkehart,  Lib.  Benedict.,  p.  345. 
*  Pertz,  Leges,  I.,  107.     Cited  by  West  in  Alcuin,  p.  64. 


10 

which  infused  new  life  into  the  schools  of  the  monasteries 
and  bishoprics,  and  these  in  turn  were  responsible  for  the 
teachers  and  the  teaching  of  the  parish  schools.  It  should 
not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  the  entire  system  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Church.  Alcuin  himself  was  a  monk  educated 
in  a  monastic  school,  and  died  the  abbot  of  the  monastery  in 
Tours  (804). 

The  enthusiasm  of  Charles  and  Alcuin  penetrated  the 
schools  of  Germany  and  served  to  uphold  for  a  time  the 
hands  of  her  teachers.  Fulda  attained  great  renown  early  in 
the  ninth  century,  under  the  leadership  of  Eabanus  Maurus, 
a  disciple  of  Alcuin.  A  century  later  the  cloistral  school  of 
Hersfeld  enjoyed  a  high  reputation.  Among  the  leading 
cathedral  schools  of  the  eleventh  century  may  be  mentioned 
those  of  Cologne,  Mainz,  Worms,  Speyer,  Hildesheim  and 
Magdeburg. 

In  the  general  collapse  of  the  tenth  century  most  of  the 
gains  of  the  eighth  were  lost.  The  period  of  chaos  following 
the  reign  of  Charles  the  Great  was  a  sorry  time  for  German 
schools.  There  could  be  little  thought  of  education  when 
men's  minds  were  most  concerned  with  the  preservation  of 
their  lives  ;  but  finally,  after  terrible  sacrifice,  order  was  re- 
stored and  another  period  of  progress  was  entered  upon.  The 
life  of  the  period,  however,  was  vastly  different  from  that  of 
the  eighth  century.  New  educational  ideas  gave  rise  to  new 
pedagogical  methods. 

Feudalism  had  gained  a  firm  foothold  in  Germany.     Class 

distinctions  were  more  closely  drawn  than  ever  before.     The 

separation  of  the  nobility,  secular  and  ecclesi- 

Feudalism.  f.  " 

astical,  from  the  peasantry  was  now  sharply 
marked.  Wealth,  which  meant  power,  was  a  chief  desidera- 
tum ;  its  possession  exalted  a  man,  the  want  of  it  brought 
him  low.  The  spirit  of  chivalry  was  intensified  by  the  cru- 
sades, and  at  every  court  noble  bards,  guiltless  of  the  rudi- 
ments of  letters,  sang  the  praises  of  woman  and  wine.  Suc- 
cess in  battle,  the  chase,  or  the  tournament,  in  making  love 
or  writing  verses — any  or  all  were  worth  striving  for  and  it 


BEGINNINGS  OF  GERMAN  SCHOOLS  11 

mattered  little  in  which  domain  the  prize  was  won.  For 
the  realization  of  such  ideals  some  systematic  training  of  the 
young  was  necessary.  For  this  purpose  the  seven  liberal  arts 
of  the  church  school  were  supplanted  by  the  seven  Frommig- 
keiten  of  feudalism, — riding,  swimming,  archery,  fencing, 
hunting,  whist-playing  and  rhyming.  The  arts  of  reading 
and  writing  were  quite  unnecessary  ;  in  fact  it  was  considered 
somewhat  effeminate  to  dally  long  with  books.  But  a  speak- 
ing knowledge  of  French  was  useful  and  was  sometimes 
taught  at  court  by  private  tutors.  In  the  training  of  the 
young  noble,  therefore,  schools  were  entirely  superfluous.  . 

Feudalism  was  essentially  antagonistic  to  the  schools ; 
scholasticism  gave  them  new  life.  The  efforts  of  the  school- 
men to  reconcile  the  revealed  dogmas  of  the 
Church  with  natural  reason,  "  to  render  the 
dogma  acceptable  to  reason,"  supplied  new  mo- 
tives for  study.  The  alliance  between  theology  and  philos- 
ophy developed  an  imperative  demand  for  close  syllogistic 
reasoning.  The  scholar  must  be  a  skilful  dialectician.  The 
study  of  grammar  and  rhetoric  led  to  the  comprehension  of 
the  mysteries  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  ;  this,  with  the  faith  to 
believe  the  patristic  dogmas  of  the  Church,  was  all  the  old 
education  sought  to  attain.  Scholasticism  marks  the  dawn 
of  a  scientific  era.  The  rise  of  the  University  of  Paris  marks 
the  corresponding  advance  in  the  history  of  education. 

During  the  period  of  political  disorder  that  preceded  the 
establishment  of  feudalism  the  Germans  were  compelled  to 
seek  safety  within  walled  inclosures.  These 

.      ,..,.,.  -,    .  -,    ,v        i  .   f     Rise  of  Cities. 

grew  in  time  into  cities  and  formed  the  chief 

centres  of  trade  and  commerce  when  travel  again  became  safe 

1 "  In  Wahrheit  1st  das  Mittelalter  gar  nicht  weltfliichtig  und  lebenssatt, 
sondern  voll  Freude  und  Verlangens.  Kampf  und  Eroberung,  mit  den 
Waffen  und  im  Handel,  ist  sein  Tagewerk,  Jagd  und  Kampfspiel  seine 
Erholung,  Macht  und  Reichtum  sein  Ziel.  Der  Inhalt  seiner  Lieder  ist 
Liebeslust  und  Liebesleid." — Paulsen,  Gesch.  d.  Gel.  Unterrichis,  Leipzig, 
1885,  p.  6.  Cf.  also  Wilson,  The  State,  Boston,  1892,  ch.  vii.,  on  the 
feudal  system. 


12  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

and  profitable.  The  guilds  of  the  Middle  Ages,  secret  organ- 
izations of  people  engaged  in  the  same  occupation  and  with 
like  interests,  greatly  facilitated  commercial  activity.  After  the 
reign  of  the  Hohenstaufen,  say  about  1254,  the  leading  cities 
of  Germany  gained  complete  political  independence.  Back 
of  these  political  changes  were  social  changes  of  equal  impor- 
tance. The  expansion  of  trade  and  the  increase  of  wealth  in 
the  cities  placed  the  balance  of  power  in  the  hands  of  the 
Burger,  a  new  social  class  midway  between  the  earlier  ex- 
tremes. Tradesmen,  master  workmen  and  skilled  mechanics 
were  as  thoroughly  differentiated  from  the  peasant  class 
below  as  from  the  nobles  above.  Nor  were  their  needs  iden- 
tical with  the  needs  of  the  clergy..  New  ideals  of  life  and 
new  standards  of  living  obviously  demanded  a  new  mode  of 
education.  But  learning  was  the  property  of  the  Church. 
Only  by  an  alliance  with  the  Church  could  the  benefits  of 
learning  be  secured.  Cathedral  schools,  monastic  schools  and 
specially  endowed  church  schools  there  were  in  considerable 
numbers,  but  they  all  were  ill-adapted  to  the  practical  needs 
of  practical  men.  The  next  step  was  the  establishment  in 
every  city  of  schools  designed  to  extend  the  benefits  of  learn- 
ing to  the  middle  classes.1  Notwithstanding  these  schools 
were  under  city  patronage,  supported  from  public  funds  and 
designed  to  give  a  practical  education,  they  were  still  con- 
nected with  the  Church  and  under  clerical  supervision  and 
direction.  So  completely  had  the  idea  permeated  all  grades 
of  society  that  the  Church  was  the  sole  dispenser  of  spiritual 
gifts,  that  a  secular  school  system  seems  scarcely  to  have  been 
considered.  Even  the  founding  of  city  schools  required  the 
assent  of  episcopal  authority — a  favour  sometimes  granted  only 
after  a  long  struggle  with  the  bishops  and  final  appeal  to  the 
Pope.  And  despite  the  secular  aim  of  the  city  schools,  their 
organization,  subject-matter  and  methods  of  instruction  did 

1  Spccht,  Geschichte  des  Unterrichtswesens  in  Deutschland  ran  den 
altesten  Zeiien  bis  zur  Mitte  des  dreizehnten  Jahrhunderts,  Stuttgart, 
1885,  p.  241  fp. 


BEGINNINGS  OF  GERMAN  SCHOOLS  13 

not  materially  differ  from  the  older  church  schools.  They 
were  "Latin  schools,"  as  the  others  were,  but  their  ultimate 
aim  was  the  making  of  citizens  and  business  men  instead  of 
priests  of  the  Roman  Church. 

The  obvious  result  of  this  system  of  semi-public  schools 
was  wide-spread  knowledge  of  letters  among  the  burghers. 
In  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  when 

....          .  City  Schools. 

the  cities  reached  their  zenith,  it  is  said  that 
the-  citizens  were  better  educated  than  the  contemporary 
nobles.1  Although  the  city  schools  were  theoretically  of  the 
same  type  as  the  church  schools  it  is  probable  that  the  prac- 
tical ends  for  which  they  were  striving  had  the  effect  of 
making  them  quite  independent.  Certainly  less  emphasis 
was  placed  on  Latin  and  singing.  The  vernacular  was  grow- 
ing into  a  vigorous  tongue,  and  its  use  was  essential  to  the 
commercial  life  of  the  tradesmen.  Hence  the  schools  were 
inclined  to  give  more  attention  to  the  common  branches. 

Contemporaneous  with  the  period  of  greatest  activity  in 
feudal  circles  and  with  the  rise  of  a  middle  class  in  society  the 
attention  of  learned  Germany  was  directed  to  the 
new  movement  in  higher  education  inaugurated 
with  the  founding  of  the  University  of  Paris.2 
This  movement  was  a  part  of  ecclesiastical  policy.  The  Pope 
was  its  final  authority,  and  the  masters  of  the  university  and 
most  of  the  students  were  in  holy  orders.  Nevertheless  in- 
struction in  the  subtleties  of  Aristotelian  philosophy  and 
the  mysteries  of  ancient  science  exercised  a  profound  influ- 
ence upon  the  higher  thought  of  Germany.  Following  at  a 
respectful  distance,  Germany,  a  century  later  than  France, 
England,  Italy  and  Spain,  became  the  patron  of  the  three 
scholastic  sciences  of  Theology,  Jurisprudence  and  Medicine. 

1  The  records  of  the  city  of  Frankfort  show  that  from  about  1417  on- 
wards the  members  of  the  guilds  coming  from  all  parts  of  Germany  signed 
their  names  to  the  registers  "  by  the  hundreds."  Cf.  Kriek,  Deutschts 
Uiirgerthum  im  Mittelalter ;  das  Schulwesen,  Frankfort,  1870. 

9  Cf.  Rashdall,  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages^  Oxford,  1895, 
Vol.  I.,  25-74,  271  ff. 


14  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

The  first  German  University  was  founded  by  Emperor  Charles 
IV.,  at  Prague  in  1348  with  the  purpose,  as  its  charter  reads, 
that  his  "  faithful  subjects  who  continually  hungered  for  the 
fruits  of  science  might  find  satisfaction  at  home  and  no  longer 
be  compelled  to  girdle  the  earth  in  the  search  for  knowledge, 
to  hunt  out  strange  peoples  and  to  beg  in  foreign  lands." 
Six  others1  were  established  in  rapid  succession,  and  in  the 
following  century,  under  the  influence  of  humanism,  nine 
more  2  were  added  to  the  list. 

As  first  planned,  the  universities  were  ecclesiastical  estab- 
lishments, defenders  of  the  faith,  foundations  of  the  Church 
for  the  higher  education  of  the  clergy.     But  in 

University  Ideals.  6J 

the  support  so  freely  given  by  civil  rulers  and 
city  corporations  there  was  evidence  of  secular  co-operation. 
Gradually  the  faculties  of  Law  and  Medicine  adjusted  them- 
selves to  the  professional  needs  of  the  times.  It  should  be 
remarked,  however,  that  in  the  theological  atmosphere  of  the 
Middle  Ages  the  Church  cast  its  shadow  over  every  science. 
Canon  law  was  regarded  as  the  main  part  of  jurisprudence,  and 
the  art  of  healing  a  gift  of  God.  The  study  of  the  liberal  arts 
was  but  a  preparation  for  higher  work,  itself  presupposing 
the  training  of  the  Latin  schools.  Yet  from  the  Bachelors  and 
Masters  of  Arts  of  the  universities  who  did  not  advance  to  the 
higher  faculties  a  new  class  of  learned  men  was  being  formed 
with  ideals  somewhat  at  variance  with  the  established  tradi- 
tions of  the  Church.  Many  of  these  becoming  teachers  in  the 
lower  schools  prepared  the  way  for  a  learned  class  outside  the 
ecclesiastical  fold.8 


'Vienna,  1365— reorganized,  1384;  Heidelberg,  1385;  Cologne,  1388; 
Erfurt,  1392;  Leipsic,  1409;  Rostock,  1419. 

"Griefswald,  1456;  Frieburg,  1457;  Basel,  1460;  Ingolstadt,  1472; 
Trier,  1473 ;  Mainz,  1477 ;  Tubingen,  1477 ;  Wittenberg,  1502 ;  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder,  1506. 

3  Of  Raslidall,  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  II.,  211,  232- 
282,  593  ff. ;  Paulsen,  German  Universities,  New  York,  1895,  pp.  16-88; 
Laurie,  Rise  and  Constitution  of  Universities,  cb  x. ;  and  Denifle,  Die 
Entitthuny  tier  Universitdtcn  ties  Mittelalters  bis  1400,  Berlin,  1885. 


BEGINNINGS  OF  GERMAN  SCHOOLS  15 

The  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  mark  the  completion 
of  a  process  toward  the  liberation  of  the  commons,  the  work- 
ing classes.  Under  feudalism,  slavery  became 

0  '       .  ,-,  Common  Schools. 

territorial  and  was  transformed  into  serfdom. 
Towns  and  cities,  under  the  impulse  of  trade  and  commerce, 
enfranchised  the  commons.  Later,  for  selfish  reasons,  and 
because  of  the  church  teachings,  agricultural  serfs  were  freed. 
This  large  class  in  society  came  to  possess  personality  and  im- 
portance ;  freedom  gave  it  rights  and  ideals.  The  needs  and 
the  ideals,  the  conditions  and  stage  of  political  development 
under  which  this  class  became  a  factor  in  society,  led  to  the 
establishment  of  schools  for  the  common  people.1 

The  Latin  language,  which  had  long  been  the  polite  tongue 
as  well  as  the  medium  of  official  intercourse,  began  here  and 
there  to  give  way  to  the  vernacular.  The  common  people 
could  live  without  a  knowledge  of  Latin.  City  officials  could 
not  longer  disregard  the.  language  of  the  commons.  The  le- 
gal documents  and  accounts  of  the  fourteenth  century  were 
mainly  in  German — a  form  intelligible  at  least  within  a  lim- 
ited area.  Indeed,  the  charters  establishing  these  schools  were 
written  in  the  vernacular.  A  desire  for  learning  spread 
among  the  commons,  because  the  ability  to  read  and  write 
was  a  means  to  advancement.  Wandering  monks  and  teach- 
ers went  about  giving  instruction,  thereby  helping  on  the 
movement  for  the  founding  of  schools. 

But  just  as  the  city  Latin  schools  were  the  old  church 
schools  secularized,  so  the  common  schools  were  in  reality 
Latin  schools  without  Latin.  And  even  here  ecclesiastical  in- 
fluence was  not  wanting.  City  magistrates  might  establish 
the  schools,  provide  for  their  support,  and  nominate  teachers, 
but  the  Church  confirmed  the  appointments  and  supervised 
all  school-work.  And  in  return  for  this  concession — for  any 
recognition  of  secular  education  was  deemed  a  concession  by 


1  For  good  short  accounts  of  the  period  see  G.  B.  Adams*  Civilization 
During  the  Middle  Ages,  pp.  279-310;  Thatcher  and  Schwill's  Europe  in 
the  Middle  Age,  pp.  434  ff.  and  563  fif. 


16  GERMAN  tilGtiER  SCHOOLS 

the  Church — the  tuition  fees  of  the  pupils  often  went  into  th6 
coffers  of  the  Church. 

At  the  end  of  the  mediaeval  period,  therefore,  we  find  a 

well-defined  school  system,  embracing  the  common  schools  of 

the  people  at  one  extreme  and  the  universities 

Summary. 

at  the  other.  The  significant  fact  is  that  it  is 
the  product  of  a  gradual  development  brought  into  existence 
by  the  growth  of  different  social  classes,  with  their  respective 
ideals  of  life,  and  dominated  throughout  by  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — Geschichte  des  deutschenSchulwesens  in  Rein's 
Encyklopadisches  Handbuch  der  Padagogik,  II. ,-693-747  (translation  in 
Report  of  U.  S.  Commr.  of  Education,  1897-98,  I.,  1-82) ;  K.  A.  Schinid, 
Geschichte  der  Erziehung,  Stuttgart,  1892,  II.,  94-548 ;  Schmidt,  Ge- 
schichte der  Padagogik,  II.,  125-379 ;  Stein,  Das  Bildungswesen  des  Mit- 
telalters,  Stuttgart,  1883 ;  Wilfmann,  Didaktik  als  Bildungslehre,  II., 
233-292;  Kriek,  Deutsches  Biirgerthum  im  Mittelalter,  Frankfort,  1871: 
Tetzner,  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Bildung  und  Jugenderziehung  von  der 
Urzeit  bis  zur  Errichtung  von  Stadtschulen,  Giitersloh,  1897 ;  Rashdall, 
Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  Oxford,  1895 ;  Drane,  Chris' 
tian  Schools  and  Scholars;  Geffcken,  Church  and  State;  Hinschius. 
Stoat  und  Kirche — Handbuch  des  offentlichen  Kechts. 


CHAPTER  H 

THE  RISE  OF  PROTESTANT  SCHOOLS 
1490-1618 

THE  characteristic  theme  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  the  res* 
toration  and  glorification  of  the  kingdom  of  God  on  earth. 
Only  so  much  knowledge  of  God  and  Man  and  Nature  was 
tolerated  as  the  Church  thought  safe  to  promulgate.  The 
authority  of  the  Church  was  supreme,  not  only  in  religious 
matters  but  in  intellectual,  social  and  political  as  well.  The 
mediaeval  world,  however,  was  not  wholly  enshrouded  in  in- 
tellectual night ;  there  was  considerable  store  of  classical 
learning.  But  learning  having  sought  refuge  in  the  monas- 
teries, became  the  handmaid  of  theology.  The  civilization 
of  the  Middle  Ages  was  feudal  and  clerical.  Both  feudalism 
and  the  Church  conspired  to  set  at  nought  the  natural  rights 
of  man. 

The  fifteenth  century  saw  the  first-fruits  of  a  new  ideal. 
The  key-note  of  the  new  movement  was  the  glorification  of 
man,  his  greatness  and  his  fame  ;  the  worship 
of  the  individual,  his  genius,  his  power,  his 
immeasurable  natural  freedom.  "  The  revival 
of  classic  learning  broke  through  the  barriers  set  by  the 
Church  ;  antiquity  was  discovered  anew  ;  the  feeling  of  kin- 
ship with  the  spirit  of  its  art  and  philosophy  permeated  and 
renovated  the  western  world,  and  in  the  admiration  and  imi- 
tation of  these  works  of  classic  paganism,  men  felt  their  re- 
lationship, not  merely  with  Christians,  but  with  the  whole 
human  race.  Their  mode  of  thought  became  humanistic  at 
the  same  time  with  their  studies  ;  art  and  philosophy  fol- 
s  17 


18  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

lowed  in  the  same  direction." 1  Interest  in  the  humanities  led 
to  a  revival  of  interest  in  the  classic  view  of  Nature.  Thus 
science  gained  a  place  in  the  thought  of  the  age,  and  to  the 
conquest  of  the  historical  treasures  of  Greece  and  Rome  were 
quickly  added  the  discovery  of  a  new  world  in  geography  and 
a  new  solar  system  in  astronomy.  The  study  of  the  ancient 
tongues  exhibited  clearly  the  striking  contrast  between  the 
pure  Latin  of  Cicero  and  the  barbarous  dialect  of  the  Church. 
What  had  passed  for  Latin,  that  to  which  the  schools  of 
Christendom  were  bending  all  their  efforts,  could  no  longer 
be  venerated  as  a  fountain  of  truth  pure  and  undefiled. 
And  the  deeper  investigation  went,  the  more  apparent  it  be- 
came that  the  historical  teachings  of  the  Church  were  hope- 
lessly mixed  with  error,  and  that  nothing  but  an  appeal  to 
original  sources  could  set  free  the  truth. 

The  whole   movement  of  the  Renaissance  tended  toward 

an  awakened  interest  in  humanity,  a  dissatisfaction  with  the 

formalism  of  the  schoolmen  and  a  consequent 

New  interest  in  a^empt  to-  restore  the  ancient  culture  of  Greece 

Humanity. 

and  Rome.2  In  Italy,  once  the  home  of  Roman 
culture,  Petrarch  (1304-1374),  and  Boccaccio  (1313-1375) 
lighted  the  torch  of  classical  learning ;  the  Medici  took  it 
from  their  hands  and  fanned  it  into  a  blaze  that  illuminated 
all  western  Europe.  Italy  became  directly  the  scene  of  in- 
tense activity.  Store-houses  of  books  were  ransacked  for 
manuscripts  ;  the  contributions  of  Greece  were  joyously  wel- 
comed upon  the  fall  of  Constantinople  (1453)  ;  artists  gath- 
ered fresh  inspiration  from  Grecian  masterpieces ;  philoso- 
phers busied  themselves  with  new  views  of  life  and  new 
theories  of  the  State.  It  meant  a  new  civilization,  or  rather 
the  transformation  and  regeneration  of  the  old  civilization. 
"  It  is  impossible  to  exaggerate  the  benefit  conferred  upon 

1  Fischer,  Descartes,  p.  81. 

*  See  Symonds'  Renaissance  in  Italy  and  Burckhardt's  Civilization  of 
the  Renaissance  in  Italy  for  an  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  subject.  G. 
B.  Adams,  Civilization  During  the  Middle  Ages,  gives  a  convenient  sum- 
mary in  the  chapter  on  "  The  Renaissance." 


THE  RISE  OF  PROTESTANT  SCHOOLS  19 

Europe  by  the  Italians  at  this  epoch.  The  culture  of  the 
classics  had  to  be  reappropriated  before  the  movement  of  the 
modem  mind  could  begin  ;  before  the  nations 
could  start  upon  a  new  career  of  progress,  the 
chasm  between  the  old  and  new  world  had  to 
be  bridged  over.  This  task  of  reappropriation  the  Italians 
undertook  alone,  and  achieved  at  the  sacrifice  of  their  literary 
independence  and  their  political  freedom.  The  history  of 
Renaissance  literature  in  Italy  is  the  history  of  a  national 
genius  deviating  from  the  course  of  self-development  into 
the  channels  of  scholarship  and  antiquarian  research.  The 
language  created  by  Dante  as  a  thing  of  power,  polished  by 
Petrarch  as  a  thing  of  beauty,  trained  by  Boccaccio  as  the 
instrument  of  melodious  prose,  was  abandoned  even  by  the 
Tuscans  in  the  fifteenth  century  for  revived  Latin  and  newly 
discovered  Greek.  Patient  acquisition  took  the  place  of 
proud  inventiveness ;  laborious  imitation  of  classical  authors 
suppressed  originality  of  style.  The  force  of  mind  which  in 
the  fourteenth  century  had  produced  a  Divine  Comedy  and 
a  Decameron,  in  the  fifteenth  was  expended  upon  the  in- 
terpretation of  codices,  the  settlement  of  texts,  the  transla- 
tion of  Greek  books  into  Latin,  the  study  of  antiquities,  the 
composition  of  commentaries,  encyclopaedias,  dictionaries, 
ephemerides.  "While  we  regret  this  change  from  creative  to 
acquisitive  literature,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  those  schol- 
ars who  ought  to  have  been  poets  accomplished  nothing  less 
than  the  civilization,  or,  to  use  their  own  phrase,  the  hu- 
manization  of  the  modern  world.  At  the  critical  moment 
when  the  Eastern  Empire  was  being  shattered  by  the  Turks, 
and  when  the  other  European  nations  were  as  yet  unfit  for 
culture,  Italy  saved  the  arts  and  sciences  of  Greece  and 
Rome  and  interpreted  the  spirit  of  the  classics.  Devoting 
herself  to  what  appears  the  slavish  work  of  compilation  and 
collection,  she  transmitted  an  inestimable  treasure  to  the 
human  race  ;  and  though  for  a  time  the  beautiful  Italian 
tongue  was  superseded  by  a  jargon  of  dead  languages,  yet  the 
literature  of  the  Renaissance  yielded  in  the  end  the  poetry  of 


20  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

Ariosto,  the  political  philosophy  of  Machiavelli,  the  histories 
of  Guicciardini  and  Varchi.  Meanwhile  the  whole  of  Europe 
had  received  the  staple  of  its  intellectual  education." l 

Late  in  the  fifteenth  century  the  movement  passed  beyond 
the  Alps.  Enthusiastic  scholars  rivalled  the  Italians  in  their 
zeal  for  the  resuscitation  and  purification  of 
Latin-  The  University  of  Paris  was  the  storm 
centre.  The  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life 
early  admitted  the  new  learning  to  a  place  in  their  schools. 
The  institution  founded  by  Groote  (1340-1384)  in  Deventer, 
had  as  its  leaders  in  the  fifteenth  century  such  enlightened 
humanists  as  Agricola  (1443-1485),  Hegius  (1433-1498)  and 
Murmellius  (1479-1517).  And  here  Erasmus  (1466-1536)  re- 
ceived his  first  impulse  to  humanistic  studies.  In  south  Ger- 
many Reuchlin  (1455-1532)  and  Wimpheling  (1450-1528)  stand 
out  as  the  clearest  figures  in  the  first  dawn  of  the  new  day. 
Under  such  teachers  as  these  Germany  received  its  first  lesson 
in  Ciceronian  Latin,  in  Greek  and  in  Hebrew.  Erasmus  said 
of  Agricola  that  he  was  "  Grcecorum  grcecissimus,  Latinorum 
latinissimus,"  and  in  a  letter  to  Cardinal  Kaphael  he  wrote 
thus  in  defence  of  Reuchlin  :  "  It  is  to  him  really  that  Ger- 
many owes  such  knowledge  as  it  has  of  Greek  and  Hebrew. 
He  is  a  learned,  accomplished  man,  respected  by  the  Emperor, 
honoured  among  his  own  people,  and  blameless  in  life  and 
character."2  Of  his  own  work  he  said  in  1521,  it  has  been 
"to  restore  a  buried  literature,  and  recall  divines  from  their 
hair-splittings  to  a  knowledge  of  the  New  Testament."  s 

The  Renaissance  in  Italy  early  showed  two  main  tendencies, 
the  one  toward  the  revival  of  antiquity,  the  other  toward  a 
better  comprehension  of  modern  life.     The  one 
mode  of  thought  found  its  chief est  satisfaction 
in  the  enjoyment  of  the  restored  literatures,  the 
other  in  reforming  art,  philosophy,  society  and  the  state.     The 

1  Symonds,  Renaissance  in  Italy — The  Revival  of  Learning,  ch.  ii. 
*  Ep.  clxviii.     Cited  by  Froudc,  Erasmus,  ch.  ix. 
3  Ep.  dlziii.     76.,  ch.  xiv. 


THE  RISE  OP  PROTESTANT  SCHOOLS  21 

humanists  of  Germany  exhibited  unmistakably  the  former  ten- 
dency ;  they  were  almost  to  a  man  teachers  of  the  classical 
languages.  Yet  they  were  more  than  linguists.  They  shared 
in  the  scientific  spirit  of  the  age ;  yet  the  truth  for  which 
they  sought  lay  buried  in  manuscripts.  Their  task  it  was  to 
unearth  the  truth  and  publish  it  abroad.  Distance  from 
classic  soil  and  the  invention  of  printing l  conspired  to  make 
the  German  humanists  bookish  from  the  start. 

An  irresistible  craving  for  truth  for  its  own  sake  every- 
where characterized  the  leading  spirits  of  the  Renaissance.2 
In  their  zeal  to  get  at  the  facts  it  was  inevitable  that  they 
should  find  opposition  once  they  touched  the  dogmas  of 
theology.  Notwithstanding  that  the  movement  in  its  in- 
ception was  favoured  by  the  higher  clergy  and  throughout  its 
course  the  foremost  humanists,  the  most  profound  scholars, 
remained  loyal  sons  of  the  Church  ;  its  influence  was  distinct- 
ly opposed  to  the  dictatorial  authority  of  the  Church.  Not 
only  did  increasing  familiarity  with  pagan  learning  tend  to 
array  the  humanists  against  the  Church,  but  the  spirit  of  in- 
dependence, the  taste  for  freedom  of  thought,  yes,  even  the 
study  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  patristic  writings,  militated 
strongly  against  clerical  tyranny.  The  Church  submerged 
the  individual ;  humanism  exalted  him.  The  theologians 
and  the  scholars  could  not  long  live  peaceably  together. 

Erasmus  and  Reuchlin  soon  found  themselves  confronted 
by  a  threatening  storm.     "Theology/'  Erasmus   wrote   to 
Colet,   "is  the  mother  of  the  sciences.     But 
nowadays  the  good  and  the  wise  keep  clear  of        ticism0™ 
it,  and  leave  the  field  to  the  dull  and  the  sor- 
did, who  think  themselves  omniscient."3    Again,  in  the  En- 
comium   MoricB,   he    launches    out  vigorously  against    the 
scholastic  divines  -.    "  They  live  in  the  third  heaven,  ador- 
ing their  own   persons  and    disdaining  the    poor   crawlers 

1  Cf.  Putnam,  Books  and  Their  Makers  in  the  Middle  Ages,  pp.  348-402. 
*  Cf.  Francke,  Social  Forces  in  German  Literature,  New  York,  1896, 
p.  141. 

*Froude,  Erasmus,  ch.  iii. 


22  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

upon  earth.  They  are  surrounded  with  a  body-guard  of  defi- 
nitions, conclusions,  corollaries,  propositions  explicit  and 
propositions  implicit.  They  will  tell  you  how  the  world  was 
created.  They  will  show  you  the  crack  where  Sin  crept  in 
and  corrupted  mankind.  .  .  .  They  lift  their  theologic 
brows.  They  talk  of  their  doctors  solemn,  doctors  subtle 
and  most  subtle,  doctors  seraphic,  doctors  cherubic,  doctors 
holy,  doctors  irrefragable.  They  practise  all  the  tricks  of 
the  platform,  and  use  them  badly,  and  yet  they  are  admired 
— wonderfully  admired — by  women  who  are  on  bad  terms 
with  their  husbands."1  Against  such  lampooning  as  this 
no  wonder  the  theologians  were  prompted  to  call  Erasmus 
a  "  heretic/'  and  "  bring  thunderbolts  out  of  their  arsenals  " 
to  train  on  him. 

Nor  were  the  clerical  party  the  only  opponents  of  humanism 
in  Germany.     Scholasticism,  firmly  intrenched  in  the  uni- 
versities, had  its  partisans  and  valiant  defen- 

ders-  How  fiercely  the  battle  rased  can  be 

seen  in  the  Epistolcs  Obscurorum  Virorum, 
anonymous  publications  which  appeared  during  the  second 
decade  of  the  sixteenth  century.  They  attacked  the  clerical 
party  with  keen  satirical  denunciation,  and  held  up  to  ridi- 
cule the  ablest  university  professors  of  the  country.  Thus 
the  seed  of  dissension  was  sown  which  was  destined  to  grow 
into  revolution. 

If  the  Eenaissance  inspired  a  deeper  respect  for  the  hu- 
manities and  pointed  out  the  way  to  independent  research 
and  inductive  reasoning,  the  Keformation  finished  the  work 
in  exalting  the  intrinsic  worth  of  the  individual.  Guizot 
says  the  Reformation  was  "  a  vast  effort  made  by  the  human 
mind  to  achieve  its  freedom ;  it  was  a  new-born  desire  to 
think  and  judge,  freely  and  independently,  of  facts  and 
opinions  which  till  then  Europe  received,  or  was  consid- 
ered bound  to  receive,  from  the  hands  of  authority.  It  was  a 

1  Froude,  Erasmus,  ch.  viii.  Cf.  also  Erasmus's  Familiar  Colloquiu 
translated  by  Bailey,  Glasgow,  1877,  pp.  184  ff. 


THE  RISE  OF  PROTESTANT  SCHOOLS  23 

great  endeavour  to  emancipate  human  reason,  and  to  call 
tilings  by  their  right  names ;  it  was  an  insurrection  of  the 
human  mind  against  the  absolute  power  of  spiritual  order."1 
Luther  in  emphasizing  the  personal  responsibility  of  the  in- 
dividual immeasurably  increased  the  dignity  of  man  and  es- 
tablished a  principle  of  supreme  importance  in  the  national 
life.  Nothing  short  of  revolution  could  result  from  it — rev- 
olution not  only  in  religious  and  political  matters,  but  revo- 
lution within  the  schools  and  universities.2 

Without  the  Reformation  the  revival  of  learning  would 
have  remained  comparatively  uninfluential  in  Germany. 
The  Eenaissance  was  throughout  an  aristocrat-  The  Renaissance 
ic  movement.  In  Germany  especially,  to  use  an  Aristocratic 
Paulsen's  phrase,  it  was  "  an  imitation  of  an  im- 
itation ;  "  it  took  its  cue  from  the  south.3  It  failed  to  reach 
the  people.  Still  a  few  were  filled  with  its  spirit ;  the  real 
leaders,  Eeuchlin  and  Erasmus,  Hegius  and  Wimpheling, 
Mosellanus  and  Melanchthon  were  profound  scholars  and 
earnest  teachers.  To  their  influence  was  due  the  founding 
of  chairs  of  eloquence  and  of  the  Greek  language  everywhere 
in  Germany  even  before  the  Reformation  ;  to  them  may  be 
traced  a  movement  for  purer  Latin  and  certain  rational  re- 
forms in  the  organization  of  the  schools.  But  it  is  under  the 
combined  influences  of  both  Renaissance  and  Reformation 
that  we  find  the  great  changes  in  the  educational  system  of 
Germany  that  mark  the  rise  of  the  Protestant  Schools.  And 
it  is  of  especial  significance  that  in  Germany  alone  of  the  lead- 
ing European  countries  the  Reformers — they  who  alone 
reached  the  masses  and  strongly  influenced  the  national  life 
— were  for  the  most  part  eminent  humanists.4  Melanchthon 
and  Erasmus  were  not  only  participants  in  the  revolt  against 
Romish  oppression,  but  they  were  indefatigable  exponents  of 

1  Guizot,  History  of  Civilization,  New  York,  1877,  p.  255.     Cf.  Haz- 
litt's  translation,  London,  1851,  Vol.  I  ,  p.  220. 

8  Cf.  G.  B.  Adams'  Civilization  During  the  Middle  Ages,  pp.  416-442. 

3  Cf.  Paulsen,  Geschichte  des  Gelehrten  Untcrrichts,  p.  34  ff. 

4  Arnold,  Higher  Schools  and  Universities  in  Germany ',  pp.  1-6 


24:  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

the  new  classical  learning.1  In  the  union  of  humanistic 
ideals  with  the  Christian  faith  born  anew  in  the  Reformation 
we  find  the  thread  that  will  guide  us  through  the  confused 
period  of  reorganization  of  the  German  school  system. 

Among  the  early  humanists  of  northern  Europe  Erasmus 
easily  held  first  place.  His  word  was  law  in  the  learned  world, 
Erasmus  and  His  so  Pr°f  oun(l  was  h*8  scholarship  and  so  striking 
Educational  his  genius.  To  him,  probably  more  than  to  any 
of  his  contemporaries,  was  due  what  of  life  and 
spirit  was  infused  into  the  early  humanism  of  Germany. 
While  accepting  Quintilian's  theory  of  education  of  the  ora- 
tor he  never  lost  sight  of  Quintilian's  dictum  that  the  good 
orator  must  first  be  a  good  man.  It  is  not  enough,  he  reit- 
erated, to  compass  heaven  and  earth  in  the  search  for  elegan- 
cies of  expression — even  for  those  of  Cicero.  Cicero  uses 
words  as  the  signs  of  ideas,  and  both  words  and  ideas  are  in- 
variably suited  to  his  special  purpose.  Bare  imitation,  there- 
fore, must  always  be  a  senseless  task.  Hence,  true  eloquence 
must  be  born  of  a  good  purpose,  directed  to  definite  ends 
and  give  expression  to  lofty  thought.  It  is  the  purpose  of 
education  to  make  a  happy,  contented,  broad-minded,  God- 
fearing man.  Such  a  man  must  needs  be  a  scholar  and  a  gen- 
tleman, a  philosopher  filled  with  the  ancient  wisdom  and 
trained  in  the  school  of  experience.  His  life  transcends  the 
petty  limitations  of  nationality ;  he  is  the  true  citizen  of  the 
world  of  letters. 

The  schools  of  Germany  were  not  much  affected  by  the 
ideals  of  humanism  until  toward  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury.2   In  fact,  it  was   not  till  the  beginning 
Hun  °f  the  sixteenth  that  many  changes  were  intro- 

duced. The  earliest  teachers  were  wandering 
scholars,  irrepressible,  uncouth  and  boastful  of  their  abili- 
ties. The  possession  of  the  new  learning  was  riches  enough ; 

1  Cf.  Taylor,  Studies  in  German  literature,  pp.  135-166. 
*Kaemmel,  Geschichte  des   deutschen   Schulwcsens  im  Ubergange  vom 
Mittelalter  zur  Neuztit,  Leipsic,  1882. 


THE  RISE  OF  PROTESTANT  SCHOOLS  25 

they  affected  to  despise  a  settled  position  and  worldly  goods  ; 
even  books  were  unnecessary  to  the  man  who  carried  the 
ancient  world  in  his  head.  Between  the  years  1460  and  1490 
Heidelberg,  Erfurt  and  Leipsic  were  intermittently  honoured 
by  such  masters  of  "  Poetry/'  In  1494  Erfurt  established  a 
professorship  of  Poesie  und  Eloquenz.  Greek,  the  classical 
literature  and  the  New  Testament  gradually  attained  a  place. 
Wittenberg,  the  first  German  University  founded  except  by 
papal  bull,  was  throughout  humanistic  from  the  beginning 
(1502).  Luther  began  his  lectures  there  in  1508  ;  ten  years 
later  Melanchthon  was  called  to  the  chair  of  Greek,  and  the 
same  year  instruction  was  first  offered  in  Hebrew.  Leipsic 
received  her  first  professor  of  Greek  in  1515,  an  Englishman 
who,  after  two  years  of  residence,  gave  way  to  the  learned 
Mosellanus.  But  even  now  the  cause  of  humanism  was  won. 
The  new  scholars  were  the  leaders  in  all  the  universities  of 
the  land.  In  1519  both  Erfurt  and  Leipsic,  the  strongest 
universities  of  central  Germany,  following  the  lead  of  Witten- 
berg, were  reorganized  in  the  humanistic  sense.  It  was  then 
that  Erasmus  could  say  that  "  the  University  of  Leipsic,  in 
which  the  old  studies  have  long  flourished,  is  now  so  enriched 
by  the  introduction  of  languages  and  sciences  that  she  stands 
second  to  none."  The  same  year  also  marks  the  beginning  of 
the  end  of  German  humanism  through  Luther  and  the  Eefor- 
mation. 

Contemporaneous  with  the  progress  of  humanism  in  the 
universities,  similar  changes  were  under  way  in  the  schools. 
All  over  Germany,  particularly  in  the  wealthier      Humanism 
cities,  there  was  a  growing  demand  for  better      Enters  the 
instruction  in  Latin.     Nuremberg  was  typical 
of  all.     Its  city  schools  were  slightly  modified  as  early  as  1485. 
In  1496  a  "poet"  was  engaged  to  teach  literature,  chiefly 
Latin  poetry.     A  few  years  later  the  demand  for  training  in 
eloquence,    the  ability  to  read,  write  and  speak  Ciceronian 
Latin,  compelled  the  rectors  of  the  city  schools  to  extend 
their  Latin  course  "  in  the  new  grammatica  and  poesie  or 
arte  oratoria."    The  climax  was  reached  in  1521,  when  a 


26  GERMAN  BIGBER  SCHOOLS 

humanistic  scholar  was  installed  in  the  Sebaldus-Schule  "  to 
give  instruction  in  Latin,  Greek  and  Hebrew."1 

Humanism  reached  its  height  in  the  first  twenty  years  of 
the  sixteenth  century.     Scarcely  a  university  or  school  of  im- 
Humauism      portance  but  had  been  won  over  to  the  new 
Reaches  its      learning.     Greek  was  everywhere  recognized  as 
Height:  1520.    ^Q  natural  supplement  of  Latin,  and  wherever 
the  practical  utility  of  linguistic  study  outweighed  its  aes- 
thetic value  Hebrew  was  added  to  the  list.     The  fact  that  so 
much  attention  was  given  to  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  in 
the  original   texts  was  of  no   little  significance  in  view  of 
Luther's  appeal  from  the  Church  to  the  Bible.2    He  hatched 
a  game-cock,  as  the  monks  declared,  from  the  egg  laid  by  the 
humanists. 

The  Keformation  was  the  natural  sequence  of  the  Kenais- 
sance.  Men  had  been  accustomed  to  go  to  the  sources,  to 
German  Re-  think  for  themselves  and  to  find  satisfaction  in 
formers  also  pagan  culture.  What  more  natural  than  that 
Humanists,  ^ey  sjloui(j  reason  together  about  theology  and 
the  practices  of  the  clergy,  that  they  should  come  to  doubt 
the  authority  for  papal  absolutism  and  the  efficacy  of  papal 
indulgences.  With  Luther  conviction  passed  quickly  into  ac- 
tion. And  his  action  was  of  incalculably  greater  consequence 
for  Germany  than  all  that  the  humanists  had  done.3  The 
humanists  stood  apart  from  the  people  ;  they  represented  a 
foreign  civilization  ;  they  knew  no  nationality.  Luther  sprang 
from  the  common  people  ;  he  was  sympathetic,  patriotic,  and 
brave ;  he  spoke  the  German  language  and  he  reached  the 
German  heart.  At  his  bidding  the  traditions  of  centuries 
were  broken,  old  associations  ruthlessly  cast  aside  and  the 
bonds  of  authority  set  jat  naught.  Thus  the  freedom  that  the 

•The  records  of  the  Nuremberg  schools  are  given  by  Paulsen,  Gel. 
Unt.,  pp.  105-108. 

*  Reuchlin's  Hebrew  Grammar,  the  first  of  its  kind  in  Germany,  appeared 
in  1506,  and  in  1516  the  first  edition  of  the  New  Testament  in  Greek  was 
published  by  Erasmus. 

1  Cf.  Francke,  Social  Forces  in  German  Literature,  p.  160  ff. 


THE  RISE  OF  PROTESTANT  SCHOOLS  27 

Renaissance  assured  to  the  learned  was  offered  by  the  Refor- 
mation to  all  mankind. 

Luther's  whole  life  was  dominated  by  a  single  idea,  the 
salvation  of  human  souls.  "With  a  singleness  of  purpose,  that 
had  been  fanatical  if  not  sublime,  he  fought 
"  Beelzebub,  Satan,  the  devil,  the  great  dragon, 
the  old  serpent,  and  the  god  of  this  world  "  on  every  field. 
And  for  this  warfare  he  conceived  it  every  man's  duty  to  pre- 
pare himself.  The  great  purpose  of  life  is  to  do  the  will  of 
God  and  to  escape  the  consequences  of  sin.  "  The  will  of  God 
is  everything  which  he  requires  us  to  believe,  do  and  suffer, 
in  order  that  His  name  may  be  hallowed  and  His  kingdom 
come."  "The  consequences  of  sin  are  the  wrath  and  dis- 
pleasure of  God,  temporal  death  and  eternal  condemnation." 
Redemption  is  found  in  Christ  alone.  "Conversion  is  the 
work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  by  which,  through  faith  in  Christ, 
we  turn  from  darkness  to  light,  and  from  the  power  of  Satan 
to  God/'  "  Faith  in  Jesus  Christ  is  personal  trust  in  Him 
alone  for  salvation  ; "  and  salvation  means  to  be  with  Christ, 
"  to  live  under  Him  and  in  His  kingdom,  and  to  serve  Him 
in  everlasting  righteousness,  innocence  and  blessedness." l 

Luther  took  his  stand  squarely  on  the  doctrine  of  justifi- 
cation by  faith  ;  his  sole  authority  was  the  Bible,  "  the  word 
of  God."  "  God  makes  Himself  known  to  us  partly  through 
His  works,  mainly  through  His  word."  Repentance  and  per- 
sonal faith  in  Christ,  for  which  a  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures 
is  an  almost  indispensable  prerequisite,  is  the  corner-stone  of 
Lutheranism.  The  "  works  "  which  the  Roman  Church  had 
enjoined  were  useless  except  they  came  from  a  regenerated 
heart. 

In  putting  aside  the  observances,  customs  and  traditions  of 
the  Roman  Church,  Luther  abolished  that  "law  "  which  had 
been  the  "school-master"  of  mediaeval  Europe.  By  fasting, 
penances  and  prayer,  by  ritualistic  worship  in  public  and  in 
private,  by  conversation,  confession  and  preaching,  by  cate- 

1  Extracts  from  Luther's  Catechism. 


28 

chising  and  formal  discipline,  the  Roman  clergy  had  fash« 

ioned  the  mediaeval  Christians  according  to  the  ideals  of  the 

Papacy.     This  was  the  true  educational  system 

_f  c!Tgefof     of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  in  it  the  church  schools 

School- Masters. 

played  only  a  subordinate  part ;  the  masses  of 

the  people  were  trained  in  the  school  of  life,  a  school  per- 
meated with  ecclesiastical  ideas  and  calculated  to  produce  a 
simple,  obedient  laity. 

With  the  Reformation  the  authority  of  the  Church  was 
superseded  by  the  authority  of  the  Bible.  All  central  Ger- 
many was  let  out  of  one  school  and  invited  to  enrol  itself 
under  another  teacher.  Luther  saw  clearly  the  absolute  ne- 
cessity of  making  the  new  education  as  effective  as  the  old 
had  been,  and  accordingly  he  resolved  to  supplant  the  formal 
teachings  of  Rome  with  a  rational  training  of  head  and  heart. 
But  an  undertaking  of  such  vast  dimensions,  freighted  with 
such  tremendous  consequences,  demanded  the  combined  sup- 
port of  Family,  State  and  Church.  To  secure  harmony  of 
action  among  these  "three  hierarchies  established  by  God/' 
and  to  se  ihat  the  right  means  were  used  in  the  right  way — 
this  was  the  life-work  of  Luther  once  the  Reformation  of 
Germany  was  an  assured  fact.  For  this  purpose  he  translated 
the  Bible,  wrote  his  two  catechisms,  composed  popular  hymns, 
and  unweariedly  laboured  to  uplift  the  peasantry  and  strength- 
en the  government.  The  great  pedagogical  service  of  Lr 
ther,  the  most  remarkable  fact  in  a  remarkable  life,  was  hip 
keen  appreciation  of  Germany's  need  of  an  education  broader 
than  that  of  the  schools  if  the  shock  of  the  protestant  revolu- 
tion were  to  be  successfully  withstood. 

The  duty  thus  imposed  upon  parents,  Luther  declares,  is  a 
divine  requirement.  "  Married  people  should  know  that  they 
can  perform  no  better  and  no  more  useful  work 
for  God'  Christianity,  the  world,  themselves 
and  their  children,  than  by  bringing  up  their 
children  well.  Pilgrimages  to  Rome  and  to  Jerusalem,  build- 
ing churches,  providing  for  masses,  or  whatever  else  the  work 
may  be  called,  is  nothing  in  comparison  with  the  right  train.- 


THE  RISE  OF  PROTESTANT  SCHOOLS  29 

ing  of  children,  for  that  is  the  straight  road  to  heaven  ;  and  it 
cannot  be  more  easily  attained  in  any  other  way.  It  is  the 
peculiar  work  of  parents,  and  when  they  do  not  attend  to  it, 
there  is  a  perversion  of  nature,  as  when  fire  does  not  burn  or 
water  moisten.  On  the  other  hand,  hell  cannot  be  more  easily 
deserved,  and  no  more  hurtful  work  can  be  done,  than  by 
neglecting  children,  letting  them  swear,  learn  shameful  words 
and  songs,  and  do  as  they  please."  1 

Again  :  "  But  this  again  is  a  sad  evil  that  all  live  on  as 
though  God  gave  us  children  for  our  pleasure  or  amusement, 
and  servants  that  we  should  employ  them  like  a  cow  or  ass, 
only  for  work,  or  as  though  all  we  had  to  do  with  our  sub- 
jects were  only  to  gratify  our  wantonness,  without  any  con- 
cern on  our  part  as  to  what  they  learn  or  how  they  live  ; 
and  no  one  is  willing  to  see  that  this  is  the  command  of  the 
Supreme  Majesty,  who  will  most  strictly  call  us  to  an  ac- 
count and  punish  us  for  it,  nor  that  there  is  so  great  need  to 
be  so  intensely  anxious  about  the  young.  .  .  .  Let  every- 
one know,  therefore,  that  above  all  things  it  is  his  duty  (or 
otherwise  he  will  lose  the  divine  favour,)  to  bring  up  his  chil- 
dren in  the  fear  and  knowledge  of  God ;  and  if  they  have 
talents,  to  have  them  instructed  and  trained  in  a  liberal  edu- 
cation, that  men  may  be  able  to  have  their  aid  in  government 
and  in  whatever  is  necessary." 2 

Family  government  he  considers  the  basis  of  all   other 
government.     Obedience  to  parents,  therefore,  is  the  child's 
chief  duty.     "  For  what  is  a  city  but  a  collec-  Fami]  Govem- 
tion  of  houses  ?    How  then  can  a  city  be  well  ment  the  Basis  of 
governed,  when  there  is  no  government  in  the  a110*""5"11116114- 
separate  houses,  and  neither  child  nor  servant  is  obedient  ? 
Likewise,  what  is  a  province  but  a  collection  of  cities,  towns, 
and  villages  ?     When,  therefore,  the  families  are  badly  con- 
trolled, how  can  the  province   be  well   governed  ?    Verily 
there    can   be    nothing   but  tyranny,  witchcraft,   murders, 

•Cited  by  Painter,  Luther  on  Education,  pp.  117-118. 
»  $ame,  p.  116. 


30  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

thefts,  disobedience.  A  principality  is  made  up  of  districts  ; 
a  kingdom,  of  principalities  ;  an  empire,  of  kingdoms  ;  these 
are  all  composed  of  families.  Where  the  father  and  mother 
rule  badly,  and  let  the  children  have  their  own  way,  there 
neither  city,  town,  village,  district,  principality,  kingdom 
nor  empire,  can  be  well  and  peacefully  governed." 1 

For  the  guidance  of  parents  in  the  proper  instruction  of 
their  children  he  prepared  his  catechisms.  They  consist  of 
a  critical  exegesis  of  the  ten  commandments,  the  Creed  and 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  which  "are  the  most  necessary  parts, 
which  every  Christian  should  first  learn  to  repeat  word  for 
word,  and  which  our  children  should  be  accustomed  to  recite 
daily  when  they  arise  in  the  morning,  when  they  sit  down  to 
their  meals,  and  when  they  retire  at  night ;  and  until  they 
repeat  them  they  should  be  given  neither  food  nor  drink. 
The  same  duty  is  also  incumbent  upon  every  head  of  a  house- 
hold, with  respect  to  his  man-servants  and  his  maid-servants, 
if  they  do  not  know  these  things  and  are  unwilling  to  learn 
them.  For  a  person  who  is  so  heathenish  as  to  be  unwilling 
to  learn  these  things  is  not  to  be  tolerated  ;  for  in  these  three 
parts  everything  contained  in  the  Scriptures  is  comprehended 
in  short  and  simple  terms."2 

That  there  was  sufficient  cause  for  alarm  at  the  condition 
of  education  in  the  early  years  of  the  Reformation  is  clearly 
apparent  from  the  tenor  of-  Luther's  "  Letter 
to  the  Mayors  and  Aldermen  of  all  the  Cities 
of  Germany  in  behalf  of  Christian  Schools" 
(1524)  and  of  the  "  Sermon  on  the  Duty  of  Sending  Children 
to  School "  (1530). 3  Herein  we  see  reflected  a  state  of  affairs 
due  partly  to  the  open  rupture  with  the  past  and  partly  to 

1  Luther's  comments  on  the  Fourth  Commandment. 

*  From  the  introduction  to  the  Catechism. 

3  English  translations  of  these,  the  most  famous  of  Luther's  pedagog- 
ical writings,  may  he  found  in  Painter's  Luther  on  Education,  Philadel- 
phia, 1889.  See  also  Kostlin's  Life  of  Luther,  New  York,  1883,  and  Lu- 
ther's Padagogische  Schriften,  edited  by  Schumann,  Vienna  and  Leipsic, 
1884. 


31 

the  popular  interpretation  of  the  doctrine  of  justification  by 
faith  rather  than  by  works.  "First  of  all/' Luther  writes, 
"  we  see  how  schools  are  deteriorating  throughout  Germany. 
The  universities  are  becoming  weak,  the  monasteries  are  de- 
clining. .  .  .  For  through  the  word  of  God  the  un- 
christian and  sensual  character  of  these  institutions  is  be- 
coming known.  And  because  selfish  parents  see  that  they 
can  no  longer  place  their  children  upon  the  bounty  of  mon- 
asteries and  cathedrals,  they  refuse  to  educate  them.  *  Why 
should  we  educate  our  children/  they  say,  '  if  they  are  not  to 
become  priests,  monks  and  nuns,  and  thus  earn  a  support  ? ' ' 

It  is  the  work  of  the  devil  that  the  people  are  so  neglectful 
of  the  higher  education  of  their  children.  Therefore  he  ap- 
peals to  the  city  magistrates  and  to  the  civil  rulers  to  take  the 
matter  in  hand.  "  If  we  must  annually  expend  large  sums  on 
muskets,  roads,  bridges,  dams,  and  the  like,  in  order  that  the 
city  may  have  temporal  peace  and  comfort,  why  should  we 
not  apply  as  much  to  our  poor,  neglected  youth,  in  order  that 
we  may  have  a  skilful  school-master  or  two  ?  " 

But  Luther  has  little  regard  for  the  general  run  of  schools, 
even  those  of  the  humanists.  "  I  should  prefer,  it  is  true, 
that  our  youth  be  ignorant  and  dumb  rather 

J  .        6  Need  of  Schools. 

than  that  the  universities  and  convents  should 
remain  as  the  only  sources  of  instruction  open  to  them.  For 
it  is  my  earnest  intention,  prayer  and  desire  that  these  schools 
of  Satan  either  be  destroyed  or  changed  into  Christian  schools. 
But  since  God  has  so  richly  favoured  us,  and  given  us  a  great 
number  of  persons  who  are  competent  thoroughly  to  instruct 
and  train  our  young  people,  it  is  truly  needful  that  we  should 
not  disregard  His  grace  and  let  Him  knock  in  vain. 
Therefore  it  will  be  the  duty  of  the  mayors  and  councils  to 
exercise  the  greatest  care  over  the  young.  For  since  the  hap- 
piness, honor,  and  life  of  the  city  are  committed  to  their 
hands,  they  would  be  recreant  before  God  and  the  world,  if 
they  did  not,  day  and  night,  with  all  their  power,  seek  its 
welfare  and  improvement.  Now  the  welfare  of  the  city  does 
not  consist  alone  in  great  treasures,  firm  walls,  beautiful 


houses,  and  munitions  of  war ;  indeed,  where  all  these  are 
found,  and  reckless  fools  come  into  power,  the  city  sustains 
the  greater  injury.  But  the  highest  welfare,  safety  and  power 
of  a  city  consists  in  able,  learned,  wise,  upright,  cultivated 
citizens,  who  can  secure,  preserve  and  utilize  every  treasure 
and  advantage.  .  .  .  Even  if  there  were  no  soul  (as  I  have 
already  said),  and  men  did  not  need  schools  and  the  languages 
for  the  sake  of  Christianity  and  the  Scriptures,  still,  for  the 
establishment  of  the  best  schools  everywhere,  both  for  boys 
and  girls,  this  consideration  is  of  itself  sufficient,  namely,  that 
society  ;  for  the  maintenance  of  civil  order  and  the  proper  reg- 
ulation of  the  household,  needs  accomplished  and  well-trained 
men  and  women. " 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  in  Luther's  opin- 
ion the  chief  end  of  education  is  distinctly  religious.  "  Able, 
learned,  wise,  upright,  cultivated  citizens" 

c^ef  E°d  of     must  also  be  earnest,  active  Christians.     In  the 

Education. 

union  of  the  Church  and  State  the  latter  must 
be  theoretically  subordinate.  The  schools  which  Luther  most 
wanted  were  Christian  schools,  in  which  the  ancient  languages 
should  hold  first  rank.  "  The  languages  are  the  scabbard  in 
which  the  Word  of  God  is  sheathed.  They  are  the  casket  in 
which  this  jewel  is  enshrined  ;  the  cask  in  which  this  wine  is 
kept ;  the  chamber  in  which  this  food  is  stored.  ...  If 
through  neglect  we  lose  the  languages  (which  may  God  for- 
bid), we  will  not  only  lose  the  Gospel,  but  it  will  finally  come 
to  pass  that  we  will  lose  also  the  ability  to  speak  and  write 
either  Latin  or  German."  The  degeneracy  of  the  Church  is 
due  to  the  ignorance  of  the  languages  in  the  dark  ages,  and 
the  only  remedy  is  the  knowledge  of  them.  "  Since,  then, 
it  behooves  Christians  at  all  times  to  use  the  Bible  as  their 
only  book  and  to  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  it,  especially 
is  it  a  disgrace  and  a  sin  at  the  present  day  not  to  learn  the 
languages,  when  God  provides  every  facility,  incites  us  to 
study,  and  wishes  to  have  His  word  known." 

The  schools  should  also  give  instruction  in  history,  mathe- 
matics and  handiwork.     "  My  idea  is  that  boys  should  spend 


THE  RISE  OF  PROTESTANT  SCHOOLS  33 

an  hour  or  two  a  day  in  school,  and  the  rest  of  the  time 
work  at  home,  learn  some  trade  and  do  whatever  is  desired, 
so  that  study  and  work  may  go  on  together, 
while  the  children  are  young  and  can  attend  to  cmrricuinm 
both.  ...  In  like  manner,  a  girl  has  time 
to  go  to  school  an  hour  a  day,  and  yet  attend  to  her  work  at 
home  ;  for  she  sleeps,  dances,  and  plays  away  more  than  that. 
.  .  .  But  the  brightest  pupils,  who  give  promise  of  becom- 
ing accomplished  teachers,  preachers,  and  workers,  should  be 
kept  longer  at  school,  or  set  apart  wholly  for  study.  .  .  . 
We  must  have  persons  qualified  to  dispense  the  Word  of  God 
and  the  Sacraments,  and  to  be  pastors  of  the  people.  But 
where  will  we  obtain  them,  if  schools  are  not  established  on  a 
more  Christian  basis,  since  those  hitherto  maintained,  even  if 
they  do  not  go  down,  can  produce  nothing  but  depraved  and 
dangerous  corruptors  of  youth  ?  " 

"  Finally,  this  must  be  taken  into  consideration  by  all  who 
earnestly  desire  to  see  such  schools  established  and  the  lan- 
guages preserved  in  the  German  states  :  that  no 

iiii  1  i  j     Value  of  Books. 

cost  nor  pains  should  be  spared  to  procure  good 
libraries  in  suitable  buildings,  especially  in  the  large  cities, 
which  are  able  to  afford  it.  For  if  a  knowledge  of  the 
Gospel  and  of  every  kind  of  learning  is  to  be  preserved,  it 
must  be  embodied  in  books,  as  the  prophets  and  apostles  did, 
as  I  have  already  shown.  .  .  .  But  my  advice  is,  not 
to  collect  all  sorts  of  books  indiscriminately,  thinking  of 
getting  only  a  vast  number  together.  I  would  have  discrim- 
ination used,  because  it  is  not  necessary  to  collect  the  com- 
mentaries of  all  the  jurists,  the  productions  of  all  the  theolo- 
gians, the  discussions  of  all  the  philosophers,  and  the  sermons 
of  all  the  monks.  Such  trash  I  would  reject  altogether,  and 
provide  my  library  only  with  useful  books ;  and  in  making 
the  selection,  I  would  advise  with  learned  men.  In  the  first 
place,  a  library  should  contain  the  Holy  Scriptures  in  Latin, 
Greek,  Hebrew,  German,  and  other  languages.  Then  the 
best  and  most  ancient  commentators  in  Greek,  Hebrew,  and 
Latin.  Secondly,  such  books  as  are  useful  in  acquiring  the 

3 


34  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

languages,  as  the  poets  and  orators,  without  considering 
whether  they  are  heathen  or  Christian,  Greek  or  Latin.  For 
it  is  from  such  works  that  grammar  must  be  learned. 
Thirdly,  books  treating  of  all  the  arts  and  sciences.  Lastly, 
books  on  jurisprudence  and  medicine,  though  here  discrimi- 
nation is  necessary.  A  prominent  place  should  be  given  to 
chronicles  and  histories,  in  whatever  languages  they  may  be 
obtained  ;  for  they  are  wonderfully  useful  in  understanding 
and  regulating  the  course  of  the  world,  and  in  disclosing  the 
marvellous  works  of  God/' 

It  was  characteristic  of  the  great  reformer  that  whatever  he 
did  he  never  left  anyone  in  doubt  as  to  his  real  intentions. 
Lather  the  Re-  His  words  went  straight  to  the  mark.  So  in 
former— Meianch-  discussing  educational  affairs  there  was  no  un- 
certainty  as  to  his  attitude.  He  wanted  sys- 
tematic family  instruction  ;  he  stated  clearly 
the  purpose  of  it  and  supplied  the  means,  even  to  question 
and  answer,  in  his  catechisms.  He  wanted  schools  for  the 
people  that  likely  boys  might  be  discovered  for  the  service 
of  the  Church  and  State.  He  wanted  schools  for  the  higher 
training  of  those  who  might  become  preachers  and  civil 
rulers.  Above  all  things  he  wanted  Christian  schools  in 
which  everything  taught  should  redound  to  the  glory  of  God 
and  the  salvation  of  immortal  souls.  He  approved  of  the 
study  of  the  ancient  languages,  but  not  for  humanistic  rea- 
sons ;  the  immediate  end  of  language  study,  as  he  con- 
ceived it,  was  not  the  cultivation  of  literary  style,  nor  yet  the 
recovery  of  pagan  learning,  but  rather  the  interpretation  and 
understanding  of  the  Word  of  God.  Luther's  position  was 
diametrically  opposed  to  the  ideals  of  the  humanists  ;  never- 
theless the  course  of  events  yoked  together  Luther,  the  re- 
former, and  Melanchthon,  the  humanist,  in  the  great  work 
of  reorganizing  the  German  school  system.  The  union  was 
unique,  but  the  situation  demanded  the  co-operation  of  the 
two  movements  which  they  pre-eminently  represented. 

An  adequate  presentation  of  Melancluhon's  pedagogical 
views  and  of  the  part  he  played  in  the  history  of  German 


THE  RISE  OF  PROTESTANT  SCHOOLS  35 

schools  would  transcend  the  limits  of  the  present  study. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  as  a  nephew  and  disciple  of  the  famous 
Reuchlin  he  was  a  humanist  of  the  humanists.  Meianchthon'8 
His  inaugural  address  on  taking  his  chair  in  Pedagogical 
Wittenberg,  de  corrigendis  adolescentice  studiis, 
marked  out  the  path  which  he  followed  the  rest  of  his  life. 
The  only  remedy  for  the  ignorance  of  the  Middle  Ages,  he 
assumed,  was  to  go  back  to  the  sources  of  classical  learning 
and  start  afresh.  Greek  he  ranked  on  a  par  with  Latin  be- 
cause of  its  content.  For  style  Cicero  stands  pre-eminent ; 
for  training  in  conversational  Latin,  Terence.  The  immedi- 
ate aim  of  all  linguistic  study  is  dilucide  et  perspicue  dicer e  ; 
the  literature,  fortified  by  theology,  ethics,  mathematics  and 
the  natural  sciences,  leads  to  prudent ia  et  humanitas.  As  a 
teacher,  organizer  and  maker  of  text-books,  Melanchthon  ex- 
celled all  his  contemporaries.  His  lectures  at  Wittenberg  in- 
cluded almost  the  entire  round  of  the  linguistic  and  philo- 
sophical studies — dialectics  and  physics,  ethics  and  history, 
mathematics  and  astronomy,  Greek  grammar,  Cicero,  Sal- 
lust,  Tacitus,  Quintilian,  Vergil,  Terence,  Ovid,  Horace, 
Homer,  Hesiod,  Demosthenes,  JEschines,  Lycurgus,  Sopho- 
cles, Euripides,  Aristophanes,  Pindar,  Theognis,  Thucydides, 
Aristotle  and  the  Greek  New  Testament.  The  text-books 
which  he  wrote  on  most  of  these  subjects  were  in  common 
use  for  more  than  a  century  after  his  death.  But  perhaps 
in  no  way  did  Melanchthon  better  deserve  the  title,  Pre- 
ceptor GermanicB,  than  in  his  attention  to  the  training  of 
teachers  for  the  higher  schools.  The  best  teachers  of  the 
Reformation  age  were  Melanchthon's  pupils.  Through  them 
the  schools  which  he  organized  became  famous,  and  his  influ- 
ence extended  throughout  all  Germany.1 

In  the  general  crash  of  the  Reformation  it  is  significant 
that  monarchical  Germany  retained  the  episcopal  form  of 

1  For  an  account  of  Melanchthon's  services  to  education  in  Germany, 
see  Paulsen,  Gel.  I7nt.,  pp.  73-77,  135-139,  147-160;  Rein's  Ency. 
IJdhk  d.  Pad.;  and  Kehrbach's  .)for»imenfa  GermanifK  Pcedagogica^'Voi. 
VII. — Philipp  Melanchthon  als  I'reeceptor  Germanics  by  Ilartfelder. 


36  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

church  government — in  effect  if  not  in  name.  Even  before 
1530  there  was  a  marked  tendency  toward  a  territorial 
church,  the  head  of  which  should  be  the  ruler  of  the  state. 
Saxony  and  Hesse  led  the  way  ;  others  followed  in  rapid  suc- 
cession, until  in  1540  practically  every  protestant  state  of 
Germany  had  its  own  church — a  condition  of  affairs  tolerable 
to  Luther  only  on  the  ground  that  the  state  is  a  divine  in- 
stitution designed  to  enable  its  citizens  the  better  to  do  the 
will  of  God. 

The  reorganization  of  the  universities,  especially  of  the 
theological  faculties,  was  an  imperative  necessity  in  view  of 

Foradi  of  the  fact  that  preachers  were  wanted,  not  priests 
Protestant  — men  learned  in  the  Scriptures  and  the  Lu- 
Je8'  theran  doctrines,  rather  than  men  skilled  in 
the  use  and  manipulation  of  symbols.  The  University  of 
Marburg  was  founded  for  this  purpose  in  1529.  Witten- 
berg was  reformed  in  the  early  30's,  and  within  a  decade 
thereafter  Tubingen,  Leipsic,  Basel,  Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
and  Greifswald  followed.  With  the  founding  of  the  uni- 
versities of  Konigsberg  (1544),  Jena  (1558)  and  Helmstadt 
(1559),  and  the  reorganization  of  Heidelberg  (1558)  and  Ros- 
tock (1563),  the  triumph  of  the  Reformation  was  complete. 
Candidates  for  the  ministry  were  thereafter  enabled  to  get  not 
only  a  Christian  education,  but  provision  was  made  in  all  the 
universities  for  supporting  meritorious  students  by  scholar- 
ships, bursaries  and  stipends  of  various  sorts. 

Closely  associated  with  the  reorganization  of  the  univer- 
sities, and,  like  it,  directly  traceable  to  the  movement  for 
Secularization  of  a  s^a^e  church,  was  the   secularization  of  the 
the  school      school  system.     In  this,  too,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  universities,  Melanchthon  played  a  leading 
part.     It  is  said  that  not  a  course '  of  study   was  adopted, 
nor  a  school  founded,  in  all  protestant  Germany  during  the 
first  twenty  years  of   the   Reformation    without  his  having 
something  to  do  with  it.     The  influence  of  Luther  was  not 
wanting,  of  course,  but  Melanchthon  was  the  better  educa- 
tionalist and  the  better  organizer. 


THE  RISE  OF  PROTESTANT  SCHOOLS  37 

The  first  protestant  school,  according  to  Paulsen,1  was 
established  in  Magdeburg  (1524)  by  the  union  of  the  old 
parochial  schools  under  one  management.  In  The  mnt 
1525  the  Counts  of  Mansfield  called  upon  the  Protestant 
reformers  to  organize  a  school  in  Eisleben,  the 
birthplace  of  Luther.  Melanchthon's  plan  for  this  school 
is  the  oldest  protestant  school  programme  now  extant.  It 
provides  for  three  classes.  The  first  classis  is  the  elementary 
school,  in  which  reading  and  writing  are  the  main  subjects. 
The  second  classis  is  devoted  chiefly  to  grammar,  i.e.,  the  lin- 
guistic study  of  Terence  and  Vergil.  The  third  classis  deals 
with  rhetoric  and  dialectic  ;  Erasmus'  de  duplici  copia  serves 
as  a  text-book,  and  besides  Livy,  Sallust,  Vergil,  Horace  and 
Cicero  are  studied.  Favoured  pupils  may  also  make  some 
beginning  of  Greek  and  Hebrew.  Mathematics  is  considered 
desirable,  but  the  exigencies  of  the  schedule  rule  it  out. 
Music  gets  one  hour  a  day,  and  on  Sunday  there  is  instruction 
in  religion. 

Erasmus  himself  could  not  have  devised  a  more  humanistic 
course  of  study  than  the  reformers  placed  before  the  little 
school  at  Eisleben.  The  ability  to  read,  write  and  speak 
good  Latin  is  the  one  chief  end.  If  Melanchthon  had  no 
thought  of  making  Latin  orators,  he  certainly  desired  for 
these  pupils  a  Ciceronian  style.  It  is  interesting  to  note  here 
and  in  subsequent  developments  how  barren  were  Luther's 
ideas  wherever  Melanchthon's  influence  extended. 

The  first  step  toward  a  state  school  system  was  taken  by 
the  Electorate  of  Saxony.     The  Kursachsische  Schulordnung 
of  1528  was  the  first  official  response  to  Luther's      The  g^^ 
appeal  for  the  co-operation  of  municipalities  in       system  ot 
the  founding  of  protestant   schools.2    It  pro-     S"01^1588- 
vided   not   only  for  schools,   but  for  a  uniform  system  of 
schools  throughout    the   Electorate.     This    plan    was    also 

1  Geschichtc  des  Oelehrten  Unterrichts,  p.  182 

*  Cf.  Schiller,  Geschiehte  der  Padagogik,  p.  99.  The  best  authority  on 
the  period  is  Burkhardt,  Geschichte  der  sachsischen  Kirchen-  und  Schul- 
viritationen  von  1524-45,  Leipzig,  1879. 


38  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

Melanchthon's,  but  that  it  received  Luther's  approval  as 
the  best  possible  arrangement  under  existing  conditions  is 
equally  certain.  In  general  outline  it  was  similar  to  the  plan 
prescribed  for  Eisleben,  but  with  some  modifications,  chiefly 
making  for  greater  simplicity,  which  were  probably  the  result 
of  experience  in  the  former  instances.  It  contemplated  the 
founding  of  Latin  schools  in  all  the  towns  and  villages  of 
Saxony.  And  they  were  to  be  Latin  schools  in  fact  as  well  as 
in  name  ;  no  Greek,  no  Hebrew,  not  even  a  modicum  of  the 
mother- tongue,  might  find  a  place.  Their  chief  function  was 
to  begin  the  preparation  of  boys  for  the  university  ;  the  final 
preparation  of  such  "lads  of  pairts"  as  they  discovered  were 
provided  for  as  the  emergencies  arose. 

The  Saxony  Latin  schools  had  three  classes  or  grades,  each 
with  rather  indefinite  time  allotment.  The  lowest  class  was 
taught  reading  and  writing  from  Melanchthou's 
Latin  primer ;  the  Creed,  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
the  Commandments,  and  a  few  classical  selec- 
tions were  committed  to  memory.  The  second  class  studied 
grammar,  syntax  and  prosody.  Latin  reading,  Terence  and 
Plautus,  and  conversational  practice  were  given  considerable 
attention.  Music  and  religious  instruction  occupied  a  more 
conspicuous  position.  The  third  class,  having  been  thorough- 
ly drilled  in  Latin  Grammar,  read  Vergil,  Ovid  and  Cicero. 
They  practised  Latin  declamations,  made  verses,  and  wrote 
letters  and  essays  weekly.  One  day  a  week  was  devoted  to 
religious  instruction. 

The  need  of  higher  schools  was  soon  felt.  In  the  early  40's 
three  such  schools  were  established  by  the  state  government 
and  richly  endowed  with  the  possessions  of  sec- 
ularized  monasteries.  The  Furstenschulen , 
also  called  Landesschulen,  of  Pforta,  Meissen 
and  Grimma  were  the  first  schools  erected  in  Germany,  not  for 
the  benefit  of  the  municipalities,  but  in  the  interests  of  state 
and  church.  To  these  schools  young  nobles  preparing  for 
political  careers  and  poor  boys  lopking  to  the  ministry  as  a 
profession  were  admitted  on  equal  footing.  The  entire  sup- 


THE  RISE  OF  PROTESTANT  SCHOOLS  39 

port  of  likely  boys  was  assured,  a  fact  that  had  much  to  do 
with  changing  the  attitude  of  parents,  as  remarked  by  Lu- 
ther, toward  the  higher  education  of  their  sons. 

The  conduct  of  these  schools  seems  to  have  been  much  in- 
fluenced by  their  monastic  environment.  The  pupils  lived 
in  cells,  ate  and  worked  together,  and  wore  a  common  habit. 
The  masters,  at  least  in  some  schools  founded  a  little  later 
on  the  same  plan,  were  pledged  to  celibacy.  The  discipline 
was  always  severe,  the  rod  being  much  in  evidence ;  little 
freedom  was  granted  outside  of  the  convent  walls  ;  vacations 
were  short  and  far  between.  In  fact,  these  schools  came  as 
near  being  monastic  schools  as  was  possible  under  protestant 
rule. 

The  Landesschulen  of  Saxony  stood  theoretically  midway 
between  the  Latin  schools  of  the  cities  and  the  universities,  but 
for  many  years  the  line  of  demarcation  at  either 

Course  of  Study. 

extreme  was  not  sharply  drawn.  Each  school 
strove  to  do  the  utmost  in  its  power.  The  Latin  schools  in 
some  instances  became  strong  enough  to  extend  their  course 
beyond  the  three  grades  and  offered  elementary  instruction 
in  Greek,  Hebrew  and  mathematics.  Schools  such  as  these, 
wherein  at  least  two  ancient  languages  were  taught,  have 
been  known  since  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century 
as  Gymnasien.  The  Filrstenschulen,  on  the  other  hand, 
overlapped  in  many  respects  the  university  course.  Admit- 
ting boys  from  the  Latin  schools  at  eleven  to  fifteen  years  of 
age,  the  curriculum  of  the  higher  schools  included  the  three 
artes  dicendi — grammar,  rhetoric  and  dialectic  ;  and  the  three 
ancient  languages — Latin,  Greek  and  Hebrew.  The  acquisi- 
tion of  a  pure  and  facile  style  was  the  aim  of  all  instruction  ; 
the  means  of  its  realization,  chiefly  the  imitation  of  the  clas- 
sical authors.  Wherever  possible  a  beginning  was  made  of 
professional  study ;  not  infrequently  did  the  higher  schools 
offer  instruction  in  medicine,  jurisprudence  and  theology. 

Notwithstanding  the  Kursachsische  Schnlordnung  was  de- 
signed to  encourage  the  founding  of  schools  and  to  secure 
uniformity  iii  aim  and  method,  the  Latin  schools  of  Saxony 


40  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

did  not  meet  the  high  expectations  of  their  founders.  Sup- 
ported by  the  municipal  governments  they  were  largely  in- 
fluenced by  local  considerations.  As  a  system  of  public 
schools  the  most  that  can  be  said  is  that  it  was  a  confederacy 
of  interests  held  together  by  the  substantial  inducements 
offered  in  the  Filrstenschulen  and  the  universities. 

Wiirtemberg  was  the  first  German  state  to  organize  a  com- 
plete system  of  public  schools.     In  1559  Melanchthon's  plan, 
schools  stem    as  *"e(^  *n  Saxony,  but  further  modified  and 
of  wortemburg,  extended,  was  introduced  in  the  Duchy.     For 
the  first  time  in  Germany  schools  were  pro- 
vided for  all  the  people  and  in  a  series  that  permitted  of 
orderly  progression  from  the  elementary  grades  to  the  uni- 
versities.    And  here  was  the  real  beginning  of  the  common 
schools  of  Germany  ;  not  a  radical  and  independent  begin- 
ning, to  be  sure,  but  the  development  of  what  already  existed 
under  the  influence  of  new   religious,    intellectual  and  eco- 
nomic  conditions. 

The    Wurttembergische   Schulordnung1   provided   that  in 
every  village  there  should  be  an  elementary  school  where  both 
boys  and  girls  should  be  taught  reading,  writ- 
Elementary     jng?  tne  art  Of  reckoning,  religion  and  singing. 
These  schools  were    entirely  in   accord   with 
Luther's  idea  that  boys  and  girls  should  be  taught  for  an 
hour  or  two  each  day  the  three  R's  and  the  catechism.     The 
only  thing  lacking  was  some  means  of  compelling  attendance. 
Each  considerable  town  and  city  was  to  have  also  a  Partic- 
rilarschule,  a  Latin  school,  with  five  or  six  classes  according 
,.  0 .    .     to  local   needs.     Here    instruction   should  be 

Latin  School. 

given  six  hours  a  day  in  reading,  writing  and 
speaking  Latin.  A  little  mathematics  was  included  and  in 
the  last  year  the  elements  of  Greek  were  taught.  The  curric- 
ulum was  altogether  humanistic,  but  with  the  addition  of 
religion  according  to  Luther's  catechism.  These  schools  were 
intended  chiefly  for  the  education  of  burghers,  and  as  a 

1  Cf.  Schiller,  Geschichte  der  Pddagogik,  p.  102  ff. 


THE  H1SB  OP  PROTESTANT  SCHOOLS  41 

matter  of  fact  comparatively  few  students  ever  passed  from 
these  schools  to  the  next  higher  grade.  Nevertheless  the 
way  was  open  to  graduates  of  the  Latin  schools  to  pass 
directly  into  the  University  of  Tubingen  and  the  Pddago- 
gium  of  Stuttgart.  These  colleges — they  could  hardly  be 
called  universities — were  higher  schools  attended  principally 
by  students  in  preparation  for  the  civil  ser- 
vice. '  For  intending  theologians  thirteen  clois- 
tral  schools  were  established,  on  the  plan  of  the 
Filrstenschulen  of  Saxony,  to  which  graduates  of  the  Latin 
schools  were  admitted  on  competitive  examination. 

The  school  system  of  Wurtemberg  was  in  advance  of  the 
times.  It  was  too  comprehensive  for  effectual  realization,  but 
the  experience  of  the  Duchy  taught  Germany  Wflrtember  ,8 
how  to  provide  instruction  for  all  classes  of  so-  Plan  a  Type 
ciety,  how  to  make  transition  easy  from  one  for  others- 
school  to  another,  and  especially  how  to  combine  central  con- 
trol with  a  fair  share  of  local  self-government.  The  rector  of 
the  college  in  Stuttgart  had  charge  of  the  Land-Examen 
which  regulated  the  admission  of  Latin-school  pupils  into  the 
higher  schools,  while  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  schools 
rested  with  the  mayors  of  the  different  towns  and  committees 
composed  of  ministers  and  citizens.  All  needy  theological 
students  received  stipends  in  the  cloistral  schools,  and  a  few 
young  nobles  of  special  promise  were  awarded  scholarships  at 
the  university  which  in  certain  cases  might  be  retained  even 
during  three  or  four  years  of  study  abroad. 

The  example  of  Wurtemberg  was  everywhere  followed  in 
protestant  Germany.  Even  Saxony  in  1580  made  use  of  all 
the  improvements  that  Wurtemberg  had  de- 
vised and  reformed  her  plan  of  1528  to  accord 
therewith.  This  date,  1580,  indicates  the  high- 
water  mark  of  the  protestant  schools  as  the  products  of  the 
Renaissance  and  the  Reformation  ;  after  that,  a  period  of 
transition,  which  is  the  subject  of  the  following  chapter. 

It  is  obvious  that  so  many  and  such  far-reaching  reforms 
could  never  have  been  carried  through  without  the  loyal  sup- 


42       .  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

port  of  many  capable  teachers  and  educationists.  Melanch- 
thon's  students  have  already  been  mentioned  as  his  trusty 
lieutenants.  But  of  all  the  school-masters  of  the  time  John 
Sturm  (1507-1589)  of  Strassburg  was  the  most  celebrated.1 
He  combined  in  himself  all  the  important  tendencies  of  the 
age.  He  was  a  humanist,  and  no  humanist  was  ever  more 
deeply  impressed  than  he  with  the  almightiness  of  the  classi- 
cal languages ;  he  was  a  protestant  of  the  Calvinistic  type, 
but  in  full  sympathy  with  the  Lutheran  position  ;  he  was  a 
practical  man  of  affairs,  an  experienced  diplomat,  at  one 
time  or  another  in  the  service  of  most  of  the  leading  Euro- 
pean courts ;  he  was  an  able  teacher  and  organizer,  if  we  can 
judge  anything  from  his  work  in  Strassburg. 

It  matters  little  in  this  connection  whether   Sturm   was 

merely  the  product  of  his  age  or  whether  he  was  in  reality  a 

,  T>  ^      creative  genius.     At  anv  rate  he  had  the  ability 

Sturm's  Position.  J  J 

to  combine  all  the  good  points  in  school  man- 
agement, as  they  were  then  conceived,  and  direct  them  sys- 
tematically toward  the  commonly  accepted  ends  of  education, 
sapiens  atque  eloquens  pietas.  Concerning  the  results  attained 
it  is  enough  to  know  that  the  Strassburg  Gymnasium,  of 
which  Sturm  was  rector  for  forty- three  years  after  its  foun- 
dation in  1538,  became  the  most  famous  school  in  Europe. 
The  dominant  ideas  of  the  sixteenth  century  were  concen- 
trated in  this  school,  and  for  two  hundred  years  it  remained 
the  typical  school  of  the  "  good  old  times "  when  schools 
were  "  what  they  ought  to  be." 

Sturm  provided  for  a  ten  years'  course  of  study  (only  nine 
years'  at  first,  later  ten).  His  pupils  entered  at  six  years  of 

age  and  immediately  began  the  Latin  grammar. 

Seven  vears  they  laboured  to  acquire  a  correct 

and  fluent  use  of  the  Latin  tongue  (Latinitas 
pura);  three  years  more  were  devoted  to  the  acquisition  of  a 

1  The  best  accounts  of  Sturm's  work  will  be  found  in  Schmidt's  La  vie 
et  Us  travaux  de.Tean  Sturm,  Strassburg,  1855,  and  in  LUUS'  Die  Pddagogik 
da  Joh.  Sturm,  Berlin,  1872. 


THE  RISE  OF  PROTESTANT  SCHOOLS  43 

fine  style  (Latinitas  ornata).  Thus  for  ten  years  "Latin 
was  exclusively  taught,  read,  spoken,  written,  every  day  four 
hours  long."  Sturm  never  seems  to  have  doubted  his  ability 
to  turn  German  boys  back  sixteen  centuries  ;  his  aim  was  to 
produce  Ciceronian  orators.  Environment  had  nothing  t?  dc 
with  the  case  ;  all  that  was  necessary  was  to  Latinize  it.  A:r 
so  in  getting  a  vocabulary  his  boys  were  first  taught  the  LatL 
names  of  every-day  things  and  the  commonest  expressions  01 
use  in  conversation.  They  were  compelled  to  imagine  them- 
selves Roman  youths  in  an  imaginary  Roman  atmosphere. 
Naturally  enough  under  such  conditions  imitation  was  a  virtue 
and  a  good  memory  the  greatest  of  intellectual  endowments. 
In  fact,  the  reproduction  of  whole  orations  of  Cicero  and  of 
whole  books  of  Vergil,  was  a  favourite  exercise  because  of  its 
value  in  strengthening  the  memory  and  in  forming  taste. 

How  far  the  protestant  schools  toward  the  end  of  the  cen- 
tury were  now  removed  from  the  ideals  of  Erasmus  and  Me- 
lanchthon  can  be  clearly  seen  in  the  case  of 
Strassburg.  We  hear  nothing  more  of  "  con- 
tent "  or  "  substance  ; "  everything  is  "  form," 
"  style,"  "  eloquence."  To  be  sure,  Sturm  included  Greek 
in  his  curriculum — six  years  of  it — but  both  Greek  and  Latin 
were  looked  upon  either  as  ends  in  themselves,  so  far  as  the 
school  was  concerned,  or  else  as  means  to  higher  professional 
study  of  a  nature  demanding  a  knowledge  of  language  and 
skill  in  its  use.  Sturm's  curriculum  contained  no  history, 
no  mathematics,  no  natural  sciences,  and  it  is  said  that  for 
thirty  years  no  time  was  found  to  teach  even  the  elements  of 
arithmetic  as  scheduled  for  the  two  highest  classes. 

But  as  a  schoolmaster  Sturm  was  a  success.  His  curricu- 
lum accorded  strictly  with  the  educational  ideals  of  his  time, 
although  we  cannot  fail  to  observe  that  the  Reformation  in 
emphasizing  the  value  of  the  classical  languages  for  biblical 
interpretation  had  strenghtened  the  worst  element  in  the  hu- 
manistic movement,  the  formal,  "bookish"  element.  He 
introduced  unity  into  the  whole  school-plan  whereby  the  end 
that  was  desired  might  the  more  certainly  be  attained ;  he 


44  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

made  a  clear-cat,  logical  arrangement  of  the  materials  which 
he  used  ;  he  proposed  methods  of  teaching  whereby  the  ma- 
terials of  instruction  were  rendered  of  incalculably  greater 
educational  value.  His  entire  scheme  was  a  model  of  con- 
centration, both  in  subject-matter  and  methods  of  presenta- 
tion. In  this  respect  Sturm's  work  remains  unsurpassed. 

A  glance  at  the  pedagogical  progress  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury discloses  marvellous  changes  in  educational  thought. 
First,  the  humanistic  movement  completely 
shattered  within  twenty  years  the  scholastic 
traditions  of  centuries.  The  mediaeval  Latin  of  the  Church 
was  replaced  by  the  pure  Latin  of  classical  antiquity  ;  Greek 
was  awarded  a  prominent  place  and  Hebrew  came  in  for  a 
share  of  attention.  Accurate  translations  of  the  classical 
writers,  philosophers  and  scientists  took  the  place  of  the  fac- 
titious interpretations  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Man's  sympa- 
thies were  broadened,  his  understanding  of  life  enormously 
extended,  and  his  mental  attitude  completely  changed — all 
the  result  of  careful  investigation  and  the  habit  of  appealing 
to  the  original  sources  for  information.  Next  came  the  Ref- 
ormation, the  logical  consequence  of  the  Renaissance,  and 
with  it  a  new  view  of  life  and  new  duties  corresponding  to 
the  responsibilities  now  for  the  first  time  laid  on  individual 
consciences.  The  authority  of  the  Church  gave  way  to  the 
authority  of  the  Bible.  To  do  God's  will  one  must  first  know 
God's  word,  not  as  distorted  by  ignorant  commentators,  but 
as  it  is  given  in  the  original  tongues.  Scholarship  must  not 
perish  from  the  earth  if  true  religion  is  to  remain.  Schools 
are  indispensable.  But  the  chief  end  of  the  schools  is  by  no 
means  absorption  in  pagan  learning ;  the  ability  to  use  the 
classical  languages  is  worth  far  more  than  the  acquaintance 
with  classical  antiquity.  Protestant  schools  were  rapidly  es- 
tablished to  meet  the  requirements  of  Lutheranism  ;  but  they 
were  humanistic  schools  in  fact,  protestant  only  in  theory. 
More  than  that  they  rapidly  became  state  schools  more  or 
less  closely  fitted  into  a  comprehensive  system,  supported  in 
part  by  state  funds  and  supervised  by  state  authority.  Both 


THE  RISE  OF  PROTESTANT  SCHOOLS  45 

within  and  without  the  protestant  schools  corresponded  to 
the  Zeitgeist ;  but  conditions  obtained  in  the  political  and 
religious  worlds,  as  well  as  in  the  pedagogical  sphere,  that 
rendered  impossible  any  settled  educational  system.  A  pe- 
riod of  transition  was  at  hand. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — Voigt,  Wiederbelebung  des  classischen  Alter- 
thums  ;  Fisher,  History  of  the  Reformation  ;  Hausser,  Period  of  the  Ref- 
ormation ;  Bryce,  Holy  Roman  Empire ;  Bluntschli,  Theory  of  the 
State ;  Ranke,  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany  ;  Freytag,  Bil~ 
der  a  us  der  deutschen  Vergangenheit  and  Neue  Bilder  aus  dem  Leben  des 
deutschen  Volkes ;  K  A.  Schmid,  Geschichte  der  Erziehung ;  Schmidt, 
Geschichte  der  Pddagogik  ;  Rein,  Encyklopadisches  Handbuch  der  Pdda- 
gogik  (translation  in  Rept.  U.  S.  Commr.  of  Education,  1897-98, 1.,  1-82); 
Ziegler,  Geschichte  der  Pddagogik,  in  Baumeister's  Handbuch  der 
Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichtslehre  fur  hohere  Schulen. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION 

1618-1805 

THE  first  decades  of  the  sixteenth  century  saw  the  rise  of 

protestant  schools  in  Germany  under  the  combined  influences 

of  the  humanists  and  the  reformers.     The  early 

Tendencies  of    ilumanjsts  nud  sought  out  the  ancient  classics 

Protestantism. 

for  their  spirit  and  content ;  with  an  exalted 
idea  of  man  they  found  in  the  old  civilization  a  higher  reali- 
zation of  individual  freedom  than  was  offered  in  the  mediaeval 
world.  Lutheranism  checked  the  growth  of  the  humanistic 
movement.  It  converted  intellectual  and  humanitarian  in- 
terests into  civil  and  religious  interests.  It  turned  man's 
attention  from  the  life  of  the  past  to  life  in  the  present  as 
a  preparation  for  the  life  that  is  to  come.  A  knowledge  of 
God's  word  as  found  in  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  Scriptures 
was  of  paramount  importance  both  in  shaping  human  ac- 
tion in  this  world  and  for  the  adequate  appreciation  of  the 
glories  of  the  next.  Hence  an  acquaintance  with  the  ancient 
languages  was  indispensable,  but  the  pagan  literatures  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  much  more  other  records  of  these  cor- 
rupt civilizations,  were  of  little  value,  even  if  not  positively 
harmful. 

The  protestant  schools  of  Germany,  in  their  zeal  for  the  ed- 
ucation of  the  clergy  and  the  uplifting  of  the  masses,  had  one 
pre-eminent  aim,  the  promotion  of  a  better  and  purer  relig- 
ious life  among  the  people  and  the  salvation  of  human  souls. 
How  well  they  succeeded  in  alienating  all  classes  from  the 
Roman  Church  and  establishing  them  in  the  protestant  faith, 

46 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  47 

is  best  evidenced  in  the  adoption  of  schools  as  the  most  effec- 
tive weapons  of  the  Counter  Beforrnation.  Sturm  could  have 
received  no  greater  compliment  than  was  paid  him  by  the 
Society  of  Jesus  in  incorporating  so  many  of  his  methods 
into  the  new  catholic  schools.  The  Jesuits,  in  employing 
schools  to  check  the  growth  of  heresy  and  to  win  back  to 
the  Church  apostate  Germany,  merely  borrowed  the  devil's 
artillery  to  fight  the  devil  with.  And  they  used  it  to  good 
effect. 

"  In  the  year  1551  they  [the  Jesuits]  had  no  settled  posi- 
tion in  Germany ;  in  1566,  their  institutions  held  possession  of 
Bavaria  and  the  Tyrol,  Franconia  and  Swabia, 
a  large  part  of  the  Rhenish  provinces  and  Aus- 
tria.  They  had  penetrated,  also,  into  Hungary, 
Bohemia,  and  Moravia.  The  effect  of  their  exertions  soon 
became  perceptible.  So  early  as  the  year  1561  the  papal 
nuncio  declares  that  *  they  are  winning  many  souls,  and  doing 
great  service  to  the  holy  see.'  This  was  the  first  effectual 
counteraction  of  protestant  labours,  the  first  enduring  im- 
pression made  against  them  in  Germany."  l 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  world  has  never  seen  a  more 
powerful  religious  order  than  this  Society  of  the  Jesuits. 
Ranke  finds  the  secret  of  its  strength  in  its  ex- 

....  .  ,,-n       •     j.i  T         *   Society  of  Jesus. 

treme  military  character.  "  Jb  or  in  the  order  of 
Jesuits,  obedience  takes  the  place  of  every  motive  or  affection 
that  usually  awakens  men  to  activity — obedience,  absolute 
and  unconditional,  without  one  thought  or  question  as  to  its 
object  or  consequences.  No  man  shall  aspire  to  any  rank 
above  that  he  holds.  The  secular  coadjutor  may  not  even 
learn  to  read  or  write  without  permission,  if  it  happen  that 
he  do  not  possess  these  attainments.  With  the  most  unlimited 
abjuration  of  all  right  of  judgment,  in  total  and  blind  subjec- 
tion to  the  will  of  his  superiors,  must  he  resign  himself  to  be 
led,  like  a  thing  without  life,  as  the  staff,  for  example,  that 
the  superior  holds  in  his  hand,  to  be  turned  to  any  purpose 

1  Ranke,  History  of  the  Popes,  I.,  415,  Bohn's  Library. 


4:8  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

seeming  good  to  him.  The  society  is  to  him  as  the  represent- 
ative of  the  divine  providence." 1 

The  success  of  the  Jesuits  can  scarcely  be  credited  to  their 
learning  or  their  piety,  says  Kanke,  but  rather  to  the  exact- 
ness and  nicety  of  their  methods.  "  With 
^em  a^  was  nicely  calculated,  every  movement 
and  action  had  its  definite  end  and  aim.  Such 
a  combination  of  learning  sufficing  to  its  purpose  with  un- 
wearying zeal,  of  studies  and  persuasion,  of  pomp  and  ascet- 
icism, of  widely  extended  influence  and  unity  in  the  govern- 
ing principle  and  intention,  has  never  been  exhibited  in  the 
world  before  or  since.  At  once  diligent  and  visionary,  worldly 
wise,  yet  full  of  enthusiasm ;  well-bred  men  and  attractive 
companions ;  disregarding  their  personal  interests,  but  labour- 
ing for  the  advancement  of  each  other — we  cannot  wonder 
that  they  were  successful. " 2 

The  three  great  lines  of  the  order's  activity,  according  to 
the  plans  of  its  founder,  Ignatius  Loyola,  were  preaching, 
confession — "  for  by  this  they  were  to  hold  the  immediate 
guidance  and  government  of  consciences  " — and  the  education 
of  youth.  And  of  these  the  last  was  the  most  important. 
"  To  gain  the  rising  generation  was  among  the  purposes  most 
earnestly  pursued.  They  laid  aside  all  secondary  matters, 
devoting  themselves  wholly  to  such  labours  as  were  essential, 
of  immediate  result,  and  calculated  for  the  extension  of  their 
influence." 

The  means  which  the  Jesuits  found  most  serviceable  in  the 
training  of  their  own  novices  they  soon  carried  into  the  edu- 
cation of  others.      The  schools  of  the  semi- 
Jesuit  schools.  .         .  .      ,  .         _ 

protestant  regions  in   which  the  society  nrst 

began  its  work  were  pretty  thoroughly  tinctured  with  hu- 
manistic ideas — a  mode  of  education  that  by  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century  was  by  no  means  acceptable  to  Rome. 
Gradually  the  Jesuits  found  their  way  into  all  the  schools  and 
universities  of  the  outlying  provinces  of  Germany,  and  at  the 

1  Banke,  Hiftory  of  the  Popes,  I.,  168.  8  Ibid.,  p.  417. 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  49 

end  of  the  century  the  protestant  states  were  surrounded, 
except  for  the  Baltic  coast,  by  Jesuits  firmly  intrenched  in 
the  educational  institutions  of  the  people  and  at  the  courts 
of  their  rulers.1 

Perhaps  the  real  secret  of  the  popularity  of  the  Jesuit 
schools  with  the  majority  of  the  people  was  the  fact  that 
wherever  one  of  their  colleges  was  founded  "no  private  per- 
son needed  further  to  incur  expense  for  the  education  of  his 
children."  Their  instruction  was  altogether  gratuitous  ;  the 
asking  or  receiving  any  remuneration  whatsoever  was  strictly 
prohibited.  And  with  children  to  instruct  the  Jesuits  knew 
far  better  how  to  attain  their  ends  than  did  the  protestant 
school-masters  of  their  time.  We  are  told  that  "  It  was  found 
that  young  people  gained  more  with  them  in  six  months, 
than  with  other  teachers  in  two  years  ;  even  protestants  re- 
moved their  children  from  distant  schools,  to  place  them 
under  the  care  of  the  Jesuits/' 

An  extended  discussion  of  the  ideals  of  the  Jesuits  and  of 
their  methods  of  work  is  foreign  to  the  purpose  of  this  essay. 
Nevertheless  it  is  impossible  to  ignore  the  in-  Inflnence  of  Jeg. 
fluence  of  their  teachings  on  the  subsequent    uits  on  school 
development  of    the    German   school   system. 
First,  because  the   schools    of    catholic  Germany  have  re- 
mained almost  as  the  Jesuits  left  them,  even  well  into  the 
present  century  ;  and  second,  because  the  protestant  schools, 
forced  to  recognize  the  superior  skill  of  their  adversaries, 
were  gradually  reformed  the  better  to  act  on  the  defensive. 

Catholic  and  protestant  schools  alike  at  the  beginning  of 

1  Zirngiebl,  Stndien  uber  das  Gesellschaft  Jesu  mit  lesonderer  Beriick- 
sichtigung  der  padagogischen  Wirksamkeit  dieses  Ordens  in  Deutschland, 
Leipzig,  1870.  Probably  the  most  valuable  work  on  this  subject  from 
the  educational  stand-point  that  has  been  published  in  German.  Hughes, 
Loyola,  and  the  Educational  System  of  the  Jesuits,  New  York,  1892,  is 
perhaps  the  most  instructive  book  for  English  readers.  The  Ratio  stu- 
diorum  et  Institutiones  scholasticce  Sodetatis  Jesu  (by  Pachtler)  will  be 
found  in  Vols.  II.,  V.,  IX.  and  XVI.  of  Kehrbach's  Monumenta  Ger- 
manics Pcedagogica. 
4 


50  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

the  seventeenth  century  gave  little  heed  to  the  substance  of 
the  ancient  civilization  ;  both  alike  were  earnestly  devoted 
to  the  study  of  the  Latin  language — the  Jes- 
uits>  because  it  was  tne  universal  speech  of 
their  order  ;  the  protestants,  because  it  was  the 
first  step  toward  a  knowledge  of  Holy  Writ.  The  Jesuits, 
too,  made  much  of  disputation  and  declamation  in  Latin  as  a 
means  of  formal  discipline  ;  the  protestants  found  them- 
selves increasingly  engaged  in  theological  discussion  among 
themselves,  an  exercise  no  less  destructive  of  peace  than  the 
encroachments  of  a  rejuvenated  Catholicism.  The  tendency 
was  everywhere  to  neglect  the  study  of  Greek  and  Hebrew. 
So  long  as  eloquence  was  the  immediate  aim  of  all  instruction 
the  imitation  of  Latin  orators  held  a  prominent  place.  At 
the  turn  of  the  century,  however,  teachers  were  inclined  to 
content  themselves  with  the  Latin  of  philosophical  and  theo- 
logical compendiums.  In  fact,  the  petty  jealousies  among 
the  protestants  themselves  and  the  aggressiveness  of  the 
Jesuits  were  giving  rise  to  a  new  scholasticism.  Scholars 
found  themselves  engulfed  in  a  maelstrom  of  theological  dis- 
putation ;  all  their  energies  were  bent  on  building  up  or 
tearing  down  some  dogma  of  the  new  faith.1 

It  has  already  been  noted  that  the  natural  tendency  of  the 
protestant  schools  was  toward  a  formal  study  of  the  ancient 
languages,  regardless  of  their  cultural  content.  We  now  see 
how  this  formalism  tended  to  develop  into  a  rehabilitated 
scholasticism.  Accompanying  the  revival  of  the  old  hair- 
splittings in  the  learned  world,  the  shade  of  the  mediaeval 
dialectic  appeared  in  the  schools. 

The  result  of  the  movement  was  on  the  one  hand  to  ex- 
clude the  masses  of  the  people  from  all  participation  in  the 
learning  of  the  time,  and  on  the  other  hand  to  alienate  the 
sympathies  of  the  nobility.  The  vague  speculations  of 
the  scholars  concerning  philosophy  and  theology  had  no 

1  Cf.  Wakeman,  Ewope,  1598-1715,  London,  1894,  pp.  39-52,  ou 
the  Counter  Eef ormation  in  Germany. 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  51 

attractions  for  the  upper  classes,  and  for  the  lower  classes 
it  was  all  an  unknown  region.  And  just  as  in  the  Middle 
Ages  the  rise  of  scholasticism  was  accompanied  by  the  growth 
of  feudalism,  so  in  the  seventeenth  century  alongside  of  the 
new  scholastic  movement  we  find  the  nobility  following  ideals 
•of  its  own. 

From  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  courts 
of  western  Germany  had  been  more  or  less  closely  in  touch 
with  court  life  in  France.  German  nobles  affected  the  French 
language  and  aped  French  customs.  They  professed  a  liking 
for  French  literature.1  They  sent  their  children  to  French 
schools  or  employed  French  tutors  at  home.  Dissatisfaction 
with  the  education  at  home  and  admiration  for  everything 
foreign  soon  worked  a  complete  change  in  the  ideals  of  the 
German  nobility.  The  highest  ambition  of  the  young  noble 
was  to  become  a  "  perfect  cavalier."  To  know  the  latest 
Parisian  fads,  fashions  and  customs  ;  to  know  how  to  dance, 
fence  and  ride  like  a  born  Frenchman  ;  to  be  accomplished 
in  speech  and  manner, — all  this  was  of  more  importance  than 
a  knowledge  of  Latin  or  the  art  of  disputation.  French  po- 
litical ideas  readily  found  a  place  in  many  German  states, 
and  the  "  perfect  cavalier "  gradually  came  to  need  special 
preparation  for  civil  and  military  service.  The  new  ideal 
carried  with  it  the  desire  for  an  acquaintance  with  math- 
ematics and  physics  and  their  practical  applications.  The 
new  political  sciences,  political  history,  jurisprudence,  geog- 
raphy and  statistics,  heraldry  and  genealogy,  were  all  a  part 
of  the  educational  life  of  the  galant  homme.  To  be  sure, 
the  formal  disciplines — religion,  ethics,  rhetoric  and  dialec- 
tics, were  not  altogether  abandoned  ;  nor  was  Latin  wholly 
supplanted  by  French  and  the  other  modern  languages. 
But  the  fact  is  these  old-fashioned  studies  were  relegated  to 


1  Of.  Taylor's  Studies  in  German  Literature,  New  York,  1891,  pp. 
HJ7-199;  Francke,  Social  Forces  in  German  Literature,  p.  172  ff. ; 
Scherer,  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Litteratur,  7th  ed.,  Berlin,  1894,  p. 
867  ff. 


52  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

places  in  the  rear  rank  ;  all  that  pertained  to  fine  manners, 
practical  conduct,  and  civil  and  military  functions,  came  to 
the  front. 

To  satisfy  the  demands  of  this  borrowed  ideal  of  life,  there 
arose  schools  designed  to  afford  the  means  of  cultivating  and 
refining  the  German  youth.  This  new  school, 
thoroughly  characteristic  of  the  period  in  which 
it  arose,  was  the  Ritterakademie.  It  succeeded 
the  reign  of  private  tutors,  and,  established  only  in  capital 
cities,  it  always  remained  a  part  of  court  life.  A  Collegium 
illustre  was  established  in  Tubingen  in  1589  for  noble  youths. 
In  1599  the  Collegium  Mauritianum  was  founded  in  Cassel, 
and  in  1618  it  was  converted  into  a  Ritterakademie — the  first 
of  its  kind.1  These  schools  were  the  direct  outgrowth  of 
French  influence,  and  manned  mostly  by  French  teachers 
they  sought  to  extend  the  French  ideals  of  life.  In  their 
way  they  were  effective,  but  a  still  more  effective  way  was  at 
hand.  It  was  war. 

The  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618-1648)  was  the  culmination 
of  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  complications  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  great  schism  struck  a  blow  not 
.onlv  at  the  Church  of  Rome  but  also  at  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire.  The  subsequent  rise  of 
national  churches  coextensive  with  the  territorial  areas  of 
the  several  protestant  states,  and  the  designation  of  civil 
rulers  as  Lords  of  the  Church  or  Defenders  of  the  Faith,  gave 
to  petty  princes  a  taste  of  power  that  they  had  not  previously 
enjoyed.  It  weakened  their  allegiance  to  the  Roman  Em- 
peror at  the  same  time  that  it  rejected  the  supremacy  of  the 
Pope  of  Rome.  But  protestantism  was  unable  at  once  to 
shake  off  the  habits  of  centuries  ;  a  church  that  stood  pri- 
marily for  freedom  of  conscience  and  individual  reason  soon 
became  almost  as  intolerant  as  the  body  from  which  it  had 
separated.  This  intolerance,  quickened  by  the  aggressiveness 
of  the  Jesuits  and  supported  by  political  jealousies,  at  length 


1  Paulscn,  Geschichte  des  Gelehrten  UnterrichtS)  p.  339. 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  63 

plunged  Germany  into  a  cruel  and  horrible  war.  The  hatred 
of  a  century's  religious  strife  burst  forth  with  uncontrollable 
fury  in  Bohemia  and  kindled  a  conflagration  that  lasted  thirty 
years  long.  It  was  the  gift  of  Jesuit  intrigue  and  protestant 
intolerance  to  Europe. 

The  conduct  of  the  war  on  the  one  side  was  in  the  hands  of 
men  trained  by  the  Jesuits  to  act  on  the  belief  that  the  end 
justifies  the  means,  and  on  the  other  side  it  de- 
volved largely  upon  leaders  actuated  by  French 
ideals  and  inspired  by  Bichelieu's  judicious 
grants  of  money  from  the  French  treasury.  No  wonder  that 
at  the  end  of  the  struggle  the  common  people  on  both  sides 
were  well-nigh  exterminated !  So  cruel  and  relentless  had 
been  the  war  that  a  population  of  thirty  millions  was  reduced 
to  less  than  ten  millions ;  the  country  was  laid  waste,  cities 
razed  to  the  ground,  homes  made  desolate ;  want  and  poverty 
and  starvation  stared  the  German  peasantry  in  the  face  ;  too 
weak  to  stand  alone  and  too  poor  to  command  assistance  the 
common  man  became  the  prey  of  a  conscienceless  aristocracy. 
The  destruction  of  trade  and  commerce  by  a  war  that  had 
lasted  a  generation  meant  the  decline  of  the  free  cities  and 
the  ruin  of  the  burghers.  The  Peace  of  Westp  lalia  (1648) 
made  an  end  of  war,  but  in  making  the  princes  absolute  in 
their  own  petty  dominions  it  also  gave  Germany  uver  to  feu- 
dalism, a  "  feudalism  from  which  all  the  feelings  that  once  en- 
nobled it  had  departed."  Germany  instead  of  being  an  em- 
pire was  a  jumble  of  two  or  three  hundred  principalities, 
"  each  with  its  own  laws,  its  own  court  (in  which  the  cere- 
monious pomp  of  Versailles  was  faintly  reproduced),  its  little 
army,  its  separate  coinage,  its  tolls  and  custom-houses  on  the 
frontier,  its  crowd  of  meddlesome  and  pedantic  officials,  pre- 
sided over  by  a  prime  minister  who  was  generally  the  un- 
worthy favourite  of  his  prince  and  the  pensioner  of  some 
foreign  court/'1 

1  Cf.  Bryce,  Holy  Roman  Empire,  chap.  xix.  On  the  life  of  the  German 
peasant,  see  Freytag's  Pictures  of  German  Life,  second  series,  translated 
by  Mrs.  Malcolm,  London,  1863, 1.,  9-77. 


54  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

The  school  that  withstood  the  ravages  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  that  had  pupils  and  could  pay  teachers,  was,  indeed,  a 
strong  one.  The  great  majority  of  educational 
the'schoois0  institutions,  universities  and  secondary  schools 
included,  went  to  the  wall,  or  were  so  weakened 
as  to  be  scarcely  recognizable.1  And  when  the  war  was  over 
the  dearth  of  funds  and  pupils  left  many  of  the  survivors  in 
a  precarious  condition.  But  worse  yet,  there  was  little  de- 
mand on  the  part  of  those  still  interested  in  education  for  ihe 
education  of  the  typical  German  school,  whether  protestant 
or  catholic.  Now,  even,  more  than  in  the  period  before  the 
war,  the  nobility  turned  awsy  from  poor,  devastated,  wretched 
Germany  to  the  splendor  of  a  foreign  culture.  The  brilliancy 
of  the  Court  of  Louis  XIV.  dazzled  all  eyes  and  seemed  the 
one  thing  desirable  in  a  gloomy  age.  The  French  language 
became  the  polite  speech ;  French  literature  was  eagerly 
sought  after,  and  it  carried  with  it  an  interest  in  Italian, 
Spanish  and  English ;  French  customs  and  manners  were  a 
considerable  part  of  the  galant  homme. 

For  the  realization  of  these  ideals  a  new  scheme  of  educa- 
tion was  bound  to  develop.     Schools  for  nobles  (the  common 
Revival  of      people  had  no  share  in  the  prevailing  fad  for 
schools  for      things  French)  were  an  imperative  necessity.2 
Hence  the  revival    of    the    Ritterakademien. 
During  the  last  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  ami  the  first 
quarter  of  the  eighteenth,  the  really  influential  schools  of 

1  For  a  picture  of  the  condition  of  the  schools,  see  Reuss,  M.  Samuel 
Gloner  tin  Strassburger  Lehrerbild  aus  den  Zeiten  des  dreisigjahrigen 
Krieges,  Strassburg,  1888. 

1  One  of  the  earliest  announcements  of  the  course  of  study  in  the  French 
Gymnasium  of  Berlin,  founded  about  1690,  runs  as  follows :  "  Die 
Frantzosische  und  Italiiinische  Sprache,  durch  deren  Gebrauch  und  durch 
die  Grammatische  R?geln  zu  erlernen,  wie  auch  die  Teutsche  Sprache  fur 
die  Frombden. — Das  Tantzen. — Das  Fechten. — Die  Exercitien  mit  der 
Pique,  mit  der  Mousquet  und  mit  der  Fahne. — Die  Vocal-  und  Instru- 
mental-Music.— Die  Geographic. — Die  Fortification. — Die  Bau-Kunst. — 
Die  Mahlerey. — Die  Perspective. — Die  Zeichenkunst,  nach  den  Principien, 
wie  sie  insgeraein  unterwiesen  werden  muss. — N.B.  Der  Autor  erbietet 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  55 

Germany  were  these  schools  in  which  the  masses  of  the  peo- 
ple had  no  interest — schools  utterly  devoid  of  sincere  religion 
and  honest  patriotism.  The  common  schools  of  the  people 
were  well-nigh  extinct.  The  Gymnasien  and  Latin  schools 
went  begging  for  scholars,  except  as  they  could  offer  free 
places  and  substantial  benefits  to  applicants.  The  entire 
school  system  of  protestant  Germany,  schools  for  nobles  ex- 
cepted,  was  manipulated  in  the  interests  of  a  church  that 
had  been  tried  as  by  fire,  and  if  its  temper  were  not  just  per- 
fect it  was  doubtless  the  result  of  over-heating. 

The  schools  and  universities  of  Germany  —  yes,  of  all 
Europe  as  well — between  1625  and  1725  were  not  the  work- 
shops of  the  leaders  of  thought.  It  is  signifi- 
cant that  the  philosophers — Bacon  (1561-1626), 
Hobbes  (1588-1679),  Descartes  (1596-1650), 
Locke  (1632-1704),  Spinoza  (1632-1677)  and  Leibnitz  (1646- 
1716) ;  and  the  scientists— Harvey  (1578-1657),  Boyle  (1627- 
1691),  Huygens  (1629-1693)  and  Newton  (1642-1727)— almost 
without  exception  were  rarely,  or  never  at  all,  in  touch  with 
university  life  ;  they  were  men  of  the  world,  interested  in  the 
practical  workings  of  Man  and  Nature  and  the  State,  and 
largely  dependent  their  lives  long  on  the  bounty  of  lords  and 
princes  whose  satellites  they  chose  to  be. 

Leibnitz,  better  than  anyone  else,  represents  the  tendency 
of  the  age  in  Germany.     A  bitter  opponent  of  the  formalism 


sich,  die  Zeichen-Kunst  auff  eine  gantz  sonderbahre  Art  zu  informiren,  so 
vermittelst  eines  Instruments  geschieht,  welches  er  erfunden  hat. — Er 
verpflichtet  sich,  den  Gebrauch  dieses  Instruments  in  kurtzer  Zeit  den 
jenigen,  so  niemahls  Zeichen  gelernet,  zu  zeigen,  also  das  sie  allerhand 
Sachen,  als  Landschafften,  Sta'dte,  Dorffer,  Schlosser,  in  Summa  alles, 
was  sich  dem  Gesichte  unbeweglich  prasentiren  wird,  eben  so  wol  als  die 
besten  Mahler  sollen  abzeichen  konnen. — Die  Arithmetic. — Die  Frantz- 
osische,  Italianische  und  Teutsche  Schreib-Kunst. — Die  Hofflichkeit  und 
andere  Sachen  mehr,  welche  theils  nohtig,  theils  curios  seyn,  und  die  als 
dann,  wann  man  einen  guten  Fortgang  in  den  oberwehnten  sehen  wird, 
benennet  werden  sollen."  (From  the  history  of  the  Franzosischcs  Gym? 
nasium,  Berlin,  in  the  Festschrift,  1890.) 


56  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

of  the  schools,  almost  as  much  a  Frenchman  as  a  German,  a 
go-between  in  religion,  he  sought  by  attaching  himself  to 
influential  courts,  rather  than  from  a  profes- 
sor's chair,  to  accomplish  his  mission.  He  was 
much  interested  in  education ;  he  wrote  peda- 
gogical treatises,  outlined  school  curricula,  and  introduced 
school  reforms.  But  in  it  all  he  worked  from  the  outside  ; 
he  was  at  home  only  in  the  Ritterakademien  and  for  them  he 
did  good  service.  He  valued  Latin  highly,  but  lamented  that 
so  much  time  was  wasted  in  its  acquisition.  There  are  so 
many  other  things  to  learn,  he  declared,  some  of  them  valu- 
able in  themselves,  others  because  custom  makes  them  so  ; 
but  in  every  instance  that  which  makes  a  thing 

His  Ideals.  ,    ,         J. 

worth  knowing  is  its  utility,  its  worth  in  prac- 
tical life.  It  matters  not  whether  the  study  be  etiquette  or 
statute  law,  philology  or  history,  politics  or  natural  science, 
its  place  in  the  curriculum  must  be  determined  by  the  needs 
of  the  pupils  in  relation  to  the  demands  of  public  life.  Logic, 
mathematics,  physics  and  geography  are  indispensable  ;  the 
ability  to  speak  well  and  to  appear  well  in  good  society  are 
second  in  importance  only  to  the  ability  to  reason  well.1  The 
poetry  and  eloquence  of  the  Latin  schools,  their  barren  phil- 
osophy and  endless  theological  controversies,  deserve  no  part 
in  the  education  of  a  gentleman.  So  far  did  French  influ- 
ence carry  the  leading  thinker  of  the  century  away  from  all 
that  was  truly  German. 

Closely  connected  with  the  introduction  of  French  views 
of  life  into  German  society  was  the  movement  toward  a  ra- 
Rationaiistic     tionalistic  philosophy  and   scientific   method. 
Philosophy  and   As  for  method  the  early  humanists  had  de- 
scientinc  Method.  monstrated  the  value  of  inductive  research  ; 
they  had  appealed  from  scholastic  authority  to  the  original 
sources.     But  in  proving  the  utter  futility  of  speculative  in- 
quiry as  a  means  of  reaching  truth,  they  had  recourse  to  the 
wisdom  of  the  ancients,  and  by  it  they  were  held  entranced. 

1  Qf.  Paulsen,  Geschichte  des  Gelehrten  Unterrichts,  p.  336. 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  57 

The  perfection  that  they  beheld  seemed  to  them  absolutely 
complete  ;  the  whole  duty  of  fallen  man,  it  was  argued,  was 
to  regain  paradise  and  hold  fast  to  it.  Hence  the  devotion 
to  the  literary  master-pieces  of  Greece  and  Rome,  for  they 
contained  the  words  of  the  perfect  life.  Hence  the  ceaseless 
round  of  imitation  in  the  schools,  the  attempt  to  blot  out 
the  Middle  Ages  and  to  live  the  life  of  the  past  in  the  pres- 
ent. 

French  scepticism  and  English  common-sense  could  not 
countenance  idolatry  even  at  Minerva's  shrine.  Bacon, 
grasping  the  full  significance  of  the  inductive  method,  boldly 
turned  from  the  past  to  the  present  and  future.  Descartes 
ably  demonstrated  that  there  is  something  even  in  modern 
man  worthy  of  respect.  Progress,  not  stagnation,  was  their 
motto.  The  invention  of  the  compass  and  the  telescope  had 
already  supplied  the  means  of  getting  at  a  new  heaven  and  a 
new  earth.  The  Belgian  Vesale  (1553)  and  the  Englishman 
Harvey  (1628)  afforded  a  new  view  of  man.  Columbus  and 
Kepler  and  Galileo  prepared  the  way  for  the  scientific  ad- 
vance of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Bacon's  aphorism  that  "  we  must  lead  men  to  the  par- 
ticulars themselves,  and  their  series  and  order ;  while  men 
on  their  side  must  force  themselves  for  awhile  to  lay 
their  notions  by  and  begin  to  familiarize  themselves  with 
facts,"  was  echoed  by  Descartes  when  he  told  the  queen 
of  Sweden,  pointing  to  a  skeleton,  "Here  are  my  books." 
This  was  the  spirit  that  directed  the  advance  of  the  posi- 
tive sciences ;  it  based  reasoning  solely  on  the  observation 
of  facts  ;  no  authority  save  the  authority  of  reason  was  ac- 
cepted. 

The  scientific  movement  in  Germany  aroused  by  the  dis- 
coveries of  Kepler,  began  to  make  itself  felt  in  the  early 
years  of  the  seventeenth  century.     Jungius,  a    The  mret  Nat_ 
professor  in  Rostock,  founded  in  1619  a  Nat-  urai  science  AB- 
ural   Science  Association   whose  .purpose  was       eolation. 
"to  free  from  sophistry  all  the  arts  and  sciences  that  are 
dependent  on  reason  and  experience,  to  lead  them  back  to 


QBMIA&  m&BBR  SCHOOLS 


demonstrative  certainty,  and  to  expand  them  by  correct  ex- 
perimentation and  fortunate  discoveries/'1'  It  was  the  nat- 
ural reaction  against  the  extreme  formalism  into  which  the 
Latin  schools  of  the  country,  protestant  and  catholic  alike, 
were  falling. 

The  ideals  of  the  scientists  soon  found  a  reception  in  the 

schools  of  the  nobles  —  at  least  in  so  far  as  such  ideals  were 

capable  of  practical  realization.     On  the  other 

Influence  on  the    -\         -\i-\-\        ••\-\-\-\  •          •> 

schools.  hand  the  classical  schools  have  never  since  been 
entirely  free  from  the  influences  that  the  scien- 
tific movement  then  first  brought  to  bear  on  them.  In  the 
Ritterakademien  it  meant  the  admission  of  mathematics  and 
physics  and  other  Realien  into  the  curriculum  ;  in  the  classi- 
cal schools  it  suggested  reforms  in  method  and  a  revival  of 
the  true  religious  spirit. 

The  first  man  to  offer  himself  as  mediator  between  the 

humanists  and  the   advocates   of  the  positive   sciences  was 

Comenius    (1592-1671).      He    was    himself    a 

ComeninB.         .  ...,.  ,    ,.       T       •  -,•   ,    • 

humanist  in  his  respect  for  Latin,  a  realist  in 

his  admiration  for  Bacon  and  the  empirical  philosophy,  a 
religionist  in  that  he  believed  the  supreme  aim  of  education 
—  and  life  as  well  —  is  "eternal  happiness  in  and  with  God." 
Hence  he,  even  more  than  his  forerunner  Ratke,  emphasized 
the  need  of  reform  in  language  teaching  ;  and  as  for  Latin, 
while  indispensable,  it  must  be  learned  quickly  in  order  that 
time  may  be  had  for  the  serious  business  of  life.  What  a 
man  most  needs  to  know,  next  to  a  knowledge  of  God  and 
of  his  own  nature,  is  the  natural  environment  in  which  he 
lives.  It  is  possible,  so  argued  Comenius,  to  get  considera- 
ble information  about  things  while  learning  words  ;  in  fact, 
words  are  valuable  only  when  learned  in  connection  with 
things,  as  the  signs  of  things  or  ideas.  In  thus  econo- 
mizing time  and  energy  life  is  prolonged  and  man  the  better 
fitted  for  eternity.  In  order  to  teach  school-masters  their 
business  Comenius  wrote  his  famous  series  of  text-books 

1  Paulson,  Geschichte  des  Oelehiien  Unterrichts,  p.  306. 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  59 

that  perpetuated  his  ideas  when  the  man  himself  was  for- 
gotten. l 

Comenius  served  the   cause   of  the  ultra-realists   in  thus 
exposing  the  defects  in  the  prevailing  methods  of  teaching 
Latin    and   the  utter  uselessness  of  learning    HiB  services  to 
mere   words.      Even    Sturm  had   taught   the  secondary  Edu- 
classic  authors  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
trating grammatical  and  rhetorical  rules.     Both  Katke  and 
Comenius  looked  upon  the  Latin  language  like  the  vernacu- 
lar, as  a  living,  organic  whole.     And  as  such  they  consid- 
ered it  only  one  of  many  spheres  of  empirical  knowledge. 

The  intensely  religious  character  of  Comenius  gained  him 
many  sympathizers  among  those  protestants  who  remained 
true  to  the  original  spirit  of  the  Reformation.  The  formal- 
ism of  the  Lutheran  Church,  its  subserviency  to  Aristote- 
lianism  and  the  scholastic  philosophy,  was  not  a  pleasing 
prospect  to  believers  in  practical  piety.  They  believed  that 
religion  was  an  affair  of  the  heart  as  well  as  of  the  head,  that 
true  religion  involved  not  only  a  knowledge  of  God's  word 
but  also  a  disposition  to  cherish  and  obey  divine  commands. 
The  reaction  against  protestant  formalism  slowly  ripened 
into  the  movement  known  as  Pietism,  of  which  Spener  and 
Francke  were  the  most  distinguished  representatives.  The 
gospel  of  love  and  benevolence  as  preached  by  these  men 
contrasted  strangely  with  the  theological  dissensions  of  the 
times.  It  is  to  their  credit  that  they  upheld  the  worth  of 
the  inner  life  in  an  age  given  over  to  externalism. 

Pietism  had  nothing  in  common  with  the  scientific  move- 
ment, except  its  uncompromising  opposition  to  the  scho- 
lasticism of  school  and  church.  Rationalism 

ui  •  j.          A.-  j         ii         j  J.T-          Rationalism. 

— worldly,  aristocratic  and  cultured — was  the 

obverse  of  pietism.     It  was  the  logical  outcome  of  scientific 


1  The  standard  work  on  Comenius  in  English  is  Laurie's  Comenius :  His 
Life  and  Educational  Works,  Quick's  Essays  on  Educational  Reformer* 
gives  a  good  account  of  his  work.  See  also  the  Educational  Review,  New 
York,  VoL  III. 


60  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

QurrWxAl  \\<T^<*  /\VV\V^-.A<^  u\>^v" 
inquiry  and  the  appeal  to  facts  within  the  reach  of  observa- 
tion and  reason.  Pushing  in  from  the  west,  it  found  sup- 
porters at  the  courts  and  among  the  nobility  ;  before  the  end 
of  the  seventeenth  century  it  had  become  the  dominant  mode 
of  thought  among  the  ruling  classes  of  Germany.  It  in- 
spired the  entire  eighteenth  century  with  a  joyous  conscious- 
ness of  its  own  power  ;  it  spoke  with  pride  of  what  had  been 
accomplished,  and  looked  forward  with  enthusiastic  hope  to 
the  future.  Its  culmination  in  the  Enlightenment  was  the 
full  fruition  of  the  hope  of  the  early  humanists ;  it  was  the 
extreme  limit  of  individualism. 

Both  pietism  and  rationalism  were  unfavourable  to  hu- 
manistic studies.  Pietism  looked  upon  them  as  dangerous ; 
rationalism,  as  unnecessary.  Both  movements 
turned  away  from  the  past.  The  pietists  would 
live  a  holy  life  in  the  present,  a  life  of  praise  and  prayer  and 
supplication,  for  the  sake  of  an  'eternal  reward  in  heaven  ; 
the  rationalists,  unwilling  to  believe  that  the  bounds  of  knowl- 
edge were  fixed  by  the  ancients,  and  unable  to  find  any  basis 
in  reason  for  implicit  faith  in  the  glories  of  a  life  to  come, 
devoted  themselves  wholly  to  the  joys  of  the  present.  Under 
the  influence  of  French  court  life  the  latter  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century  saw  the  introduction  into  Germany  of 
a  profligacy  and  libertinism  utterly  foreign  to  its  own  civil- 
ization. But  sensual  indulgence,  excused  on  philosophic 
grounds,  played  an  important  part  in  weakening  the  grasp  of 
the  nobility  on  the  middle  classes.  The  rise  of  the  demo- 
cratic spirit  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  was 
made  possible  if  not  actually  promoted  by  the  hideous  cor- 
ruption in  high  places.  Rationalism  was  essentially  liberal 
and  liberalizing ;  and  if  occasionally  it  plunged  weaklings 
into  dissipation,  it  gave  strong-minded  men  the  impulse  to 
free  themselves  from  the  thraldom  of  tradition  and  authority. 
Moreover,  in  the  intellectual  sphere,  it  did  not  immediately 
set  up  a  standard  of  its  own  to  which  reason  must  conform  ; 
it  left  each  man  free  to  follow  his  own  bent ;  it  offered  a  fair 
field  and  no  favour.  Science  cut  loose  from  the  Greeks  ;  phil- 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  61 

w      I  -  -  Vl    v 

t    Ye&OA*.\t***+*     V^1^    u  vs^x^vv^1^-*-*-^***-^ 

osophy  and  political  economy  and  jurisprudence  assumed  a 
modern  aspect ;  even  the  dry  bones  of  the  church,  both 
evangelical  and  catholic,  began  to  feel  the  stir  of  life  under 
the  combined  attacks  of  atheism  and  pietism. 

The  foundation  of  the  University  of  Halle  (1694)  ushered 
in  the  new  era  in  German  life.  In  Halle,  Thomasius  and 
Francke,  both  of  whom  had  been  expelled  from  The  Univereity 
the  orthodox  University  of  Leipsic  because  of  of  Haiieand 
their  too  liberal  ideas,  joined  hands  in  opposing  Lehrfreiheit. 
the  old  spiritual  order.  Thomasius  was  a  type  of  the  per- 
fect cavalier;  Francke  was  the  leading  pietist  of  the  day. 
Francke's  influence  dominated  the  theological  faculty;  Tho- 
masius was  supreme  in  the  rest  of  the  University.  That  one 
and  the  same  institution  could  harbour  two  such  men  and 
assure  them  freedom  of  action  was  the  most  significant  fact 
in  the  whole  matter.  It  was  the  beginning  of  Lehrfreiheit 
in  Germany,  and  for  that  reason  Halle  is  counted  the  first 
really  modern  university.  It  stood  for  freedom  of  teaching 
modern  subjects  in  a  modern  tongue  and  according  to  modern 
methods. 

The  atmosphere  of  Halle  was  conducive  to  the  growth  of 
a  modern  philosophy.  Christian  Wolff,  professor  from  1707 
to  1723  and  again  from  1740  to  1754,  was  the 
first  who  succeeded  in  making  "  philosophy 
speak  German."  His  system  was  tke  first  to 
supersede  Aristotelianism,  and  it  was  so  well  received  that  it 
dominated  the  German  schools  till  the  advent  of  Kantianism. 
"  Nothing  without  sufficient  cause  "  was  its  ruling  principle. 
"  It  aimed  no  longer  to  be  ancilla  theologies,  but  without 
prejudice  sought  after  truth,  and  mathematics  and  the  natu- 
ral sciences  in  their  modern  form  composed  its  foundation. 
And  in  equal  degree  it  disclaimed  all  transcendental  author- 
ity for  morals  and  for  law,  basing  them  exclusively  upon  the 
nature  of  man  and  of  society."1 

It  was  no  mere  accident  that  the  period  of  Enlightenment 

1  Paulsen,  German  Universities,  New  York,  1895,  p.  60. 


62  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

in  Germany  was  coincident  with  the  reign  of  Frederick  the 
Great.  On  ascending  the  throne  he  announced  that  his  mis- 
sion was  "to  further  the  country's  well-being, 
anc*  to  ma^e  everyone  of  our  [his]  subjects 
happy."  The  character  of  the  whole  forty-six 
years  of  his  reign  was  clearly  indicated  in  the  principal  acts  of 
the  first  week,1  viz.,  the  abolition  of  legal  torture  in  criminal 
trials,  an  order  looking  to  more  equitable  administration  of 
the  laws,  a  (partial)  guarantee  of  the  freedom  of  speech  and 
of  the  press,  the  enunciation  of  the  principle  of  religious 
toleration,  and  the  ejacouragement  of  independent,  scientific 
research.  "  All  religions  must  be  tolerated,"  he  declared, 
"  for  in  this  country  every  man  must  get  to  heaven  in  his 
own  way."  In  giving  orders  for  the  immediate  recall  of 
Wolff,  who  had  been  banished  by  Frederick's  father  at  the 
instigation  of  the  pietists,  the  King  said,  "  A  man  that  seeks 
truth,  and  loves  it,  must  be  reckoned  precious  in  any  human 
society."  In  his  efforts  to  resuscitate  the  Berlin  Academy  he 
urged  M.  de  Maupertuis  to  leave  Paris  and  "  come  and  in- 
sert into  this  wild  crab-tree  the  graft  of  the  sciences,  that  it 
may  bear  fruit." 

This  period,  under   the  leadership  of  so  enlightened  a 

prince,  embodied  and  united  all  the  forces  that  were  making 

for  a  new  spiritual  and  social  life.    The  nation- 

His  Reforms.        .         .    .  .         -       ,  . 

al  spirit  was  stirred  ;  forms  of  misgovernment 
were  abolished  and  economical  administration  introduced. 
The  resources  of  the  country  were  developed,  industries  of 
all  kinds  encouraged,  the  territory  extended  by  fortunate 
conquests  and  the  army  increased  to  formidable  proportions. 
In  a  word,  the  electorate  of  Brandenburg  was  now  become 
the  kingdom  of  Prussia,  a  kingdom  not  only  in  name,  but  a 
recognized  power  in  European  politics. 

It  has  been  said  that  in  the  Enlightenment  "an  effort  was 
made  to  raise  man,  so  far  as  he  is  a  rational  individual,  into 
a  position  of  supremacy  over  everything."2  Two  dominant 

1  Of.  Carlyle,  Frederick  the  Great,  X.,  231-261. 
3  Erdinauu,  History  of  Philosophy,  I.,  283. 


T&E  PERIOD  OP  TRANSITION  83 

motives  determined  all  action  in  this  direction  :  (1)  the  per- 
fection of  the  individual,  and  (2)  the  mastery  over  environ- 
ment. These  two  ideas  also  entered  into  the  The  Two  Motive8 
educational  ideals  of  the  time/ and  directed  of  the  Eniight- 
the  development  of  the  school  system.  The  emnent. 
one  was  essentially  humanistic  as  pertaining  to  the  per- 
fection of  the  human  subject ;  the  other  was  essentially 
realistic  as  pertaining'  to  the  control  of  things  in  the  ob- 
jective world.  The  Courtly-French  ideal,  at  least  as  for- 
mulated by  Leibnitz,  embodied  both  notions,  and  for  this 
reason  it  is  often  considered  the  typical  educational  ideal  of 
this  transition  period.  But  it  is  equally  certain  that  in  the 
great  undercurrent  of  German  thought  the  two  ideas  were 
but  loosely  joined.  They  held  together  at  first  for  prudential 
considerations  in  the  face  of  united  opposition  from  State 
and  Church,  but  they  quickly  differentiated  when  each  could 
maintain  itself  alone.  Humanistic  ideas  had  never  been  en- 
tirely expelled  from  the  schools  and  universities,  but  through- 
out the  seventeenth  century  they  were  inactive  and  uninflu- 
ential.  It  was  not  till  toward  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century  that  they  again  became  dynamic  and  exercised  a 
power  in  the  educational  world. 

We  have  already  noted  the  growth  of  the  sciences  and  the 
spread  of  the  scientific  spirit  in  Germany.     In  accord  with 
this  spirit  Ratke  and  Comenius  emphasized  the 
study  of  things ;  natural  science,  physics,  mathe-  l'  J_~f  Mastery 

•  '  *•     J  of  JLnvironment. 

matics,  history,  and  the  mother  tongue,  all 
deserve  a  place  in  the  curriculum  on  a  par  with  the  classical 
languages.  In  fact,  Latin  and  Greek,  like  the  rest,  are  valu- 
able only  for  practical  purposes.  Weigel  (1625-1699),  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Jena,  and  Reyher,  rector  of  the 
Gymnasium  in  Gotha  and  author  of  the  famous  Saxe-Gotha 
Schulordnung  of  1642,  worked  assiduously  for  the  reform  of 
the  Latin  schools  in  the  realistic  sense.  Francke  (1633-1727) 
was  no  sooner  settled  in  Halle  than  he  began  the  foundation 
of  that  remarkable  group  of  schools  and  charitable  institutions 
which  still  bears  his  name.  All  Fraucke's  schools,  especially 


64  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

those  for  the  common  people,  were  strongly  pietistic.  The 
study  of  the  Bible  and  the  catechism,  the  learning  of  hymns 
and  prayers,  and  participation  in  religious  exercises,  were  the 
all-important  part  of  the  curriculum  ;  nevertheless  three  hours 
a  day  were  devoted  in  the  lower  schools  to  secular  subjects, 
and  in  the  higher  schools  the  course  was  determined  by  the 
requirements  for  admission  to  the  university.  But  however 
much  Francke  was  hampered  in  the  development  of  his  higher 
schools  by  the  traditional  demands  of  the  universities,  he 
managed  to  find  a  place  for  geography,  history,  mathematics 
and  French,  and  by  a  judicious  use  of  "  recreation  hours  "  he 
succeeded  in  introducing  his  pupils  to  nature  study  and  man- 
ual training. 

Francke  had  the  rare  ability  to  see  clearly  what  needed 
doing  and  then  to  do  it  regardless  of  obstacles  or  consequences. 
Francke  and  r^ne  magnitude  of  his  work  in  Halle  is  simply 
Realistic  Educa-  marvellous,  and  yet  what  he  actually  accom- 
plished is  insignificant  in  comparison  with  what 
he  inspired  others  to  do.1  He  showed  how  practical  Chris- 
tianity could  be  incorporated  in  the  work  of  the  common 
schools  ;  his  plan  was  immediately  adopted  by  Frederick  Will- 
iam I.  and  made  well-nigh  universal  in  Prussia.  He  showed 
how  the  Realien  could  be  profitably  employed  in  a  Latin 
school,  and  even  made  a  constituent  part  of  a  university  pre- 
paratory course  ;  as  a  result  of  his  methods,  and  especially  of 
his  suggestion  that  schools  should  be  founded  for  the  exclu- 
sive purpose  of  fitting  the  youth  of  the  citizen  class  for  prac- 
tical life,  there  has  since  grown  up  in  Germany  a  class  of 
Real-schools.  Herein  Francke  acted  in  conformity  with  the 
rationalistic  spirit  of  his  times.  Whatever  may  have  been  his 
opinion  of  the  Ritterakademie  as  an  institution  for  the  prac- 
tical training  of  the  nobility,  he  certainly  believed  in  the 
wisdom  of  a  practical  training  for  the  learned  professions,  for 
the  business  occupations  of  the  citizen  class,  and  for  the  needs 
of  the  people  generally.  The  Real-school,  therefore,  is  the 

1  Frick,  Die  Franckeschcn  Stiftungen,  1892. 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  65 

direct  response  to  the  educational  ideal  that  lays  special  em- 
phasis on  the  mastery  of  environment.  It  is  the  outgrowth 
of  one  phase  of  the  rationalistic  mode  of  thought. 

Francke's  efforts  in  Halle  were  seconded  by  Semler,  one  of 
WeigeFs  students,  who  was  the  first  to  establish  a  school  in 
which  the  Realien  took  first  place.1  His  idea 

The  Real-Schools. 

was  to  give  manual  training  to  pupils  from  both 
the  common  and  the  Latin  schools.  Semler's  plan  was  alto- 
gether impracticable,  but  his  dream  was  destined  to  be  realized 
by  Hecker,  a  clergyman  who  had  served  an  apprenticeship  as 
teacher  in  Francke's  orphan  school.  In  17-47  he  established 
in  Berlin  an  " oekonomisch-mathematische  Realschule"  for  the 
higher  training  of  those  pupils  who  had  no  intention  of  enter- 
ing the  learned  professions.  Instruction  was  offered  in  re- 
ligion and  ethics,  the  German,  French  and  Latin  languages, 
writing,  arithmetic,  drawing,  history,  geography,  and  the 
elements  of  geometry,  mechanics  and  architecture.  An  im- 
portant feature  of  the  founder's  plan  was  a  series  of  optional 
courses  designed  to  give  pupils  an  insight  into  the  practical 
workings  of  the  various  trades  and  occupations  of  burgher 
life. 

The  success  of  Hecker's  undertaking  was  assured  almost 
from  the  start.  With  the  hearty  approval  of  Frederick  the 
Great  there  was  little  difficulty  in  putting  the  institution  on 
a  permanent  basis  and  in  winning  popular  support.  The 
school  was  soon  overrun  with  pupils,  and  additional  facilities 
were  demanded.  Moreover,  the  plan  found  numerous  imita- 
tors outside  of  Berlin.  Within  a  few  years  all  the  flourishing 
commercial  centres  of  Germany  were  supplied  with  Real- 
schools  occupying  a  position  in  the  school  system  midway 
between  the  common  schools  and  the  classical  Gymnasien. 

The  pedagogical  character  of  the  Real-school  was  estab- 
lished by  Basedow  and  his  followers.  Originally  the  plan 
was  to  provide  for  the  middle  classes  what  would  be  called 

1  Heubaum,  ChristopTi  Scmlers  Realschule  ami  .W»*  Beziehung  zu  A. 
H.  Francke  in  Neue  Jahrbiicher  filr  Philologie  und  Pddagogik^  1893. 

I 


66  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

nowadays  manual  training  schools  in  which  the  scientific 
principles  underlying  the  various  trades  and  business  voca- 
tions should  have  a  prominent  place.  These 
sc^ools  were  to  be  one  step  removed  from  the 
trade  schools  for  the  lower  classes.  But  under 
the  influence  of  the  Philanthropinists  the  .Real-school  was 
transformed  into  a  modern  humanistic  school  and  placed  in 
competition  with  the  humanistic  Gymnasium.  The  wisdom 
of  such  a  step  may  be  questioned  from  the  fact  that  for  half 
a  century  the  Real-school  was  held  in  check.  The  only 
advantage  gained  was  the  demonstration  that  almost  any 
kind  of  instruction  was  preferable  to  the  antiquated  Latin 
school  with  its  scholastic  methods  and  dreary  round  of  Latin 
imitation. 

The  utilitarian  conceptions  of  the  rationalistic  view  of  life 

found  complete  expression  in  the  conventional  training  of  the 

Ritterakademie  and  in  the  Real-school.1     They 

Reaction  Against  .  •      i        i 

the  Formalism    represent  the  reaction  in  the  pedagogical  sphere 
of  the  Latin     against  the  emptv.  sterile  dogmatism  of  the  pre- 

Schools.  1    " '  .  6.  ,. 

ceding  age.  As  champions  of  the  new  learning 
and  modern  culture  they  were  the  fittest  representatives  of  an 
"enlightened"  educational  ideal,  and  their  triumph  would 
doubtless  have  been  complete  had  not  another  force  gained  the 
ascendancy  at  the  very  hour  of  victory.  This  new  force  was 
likewise  a  part  of  the  rationalistic  movement,  but  instead  of 

1  The  building  up  of  great  national  governments  during  this  period 
necessitated  large  military  operations.  These  required  large  forces  of  men 
and  great  funds  of  wealth.  The  feudal  system  no  longer  supplied  the  one, 
nor  could  royal  domains,  however  vast,  supply  the  other.  National  gov- 
ernments and  armies  necessitated  taxation  in  order  to  secure  the  funds  of 
precious  metals.  Industrial  and  commercial  activities  alone  could  bear 
this  burden.  In  order  to  foster  industry  and  commerce,  the  welfare  of  the 
masses  must  be  secured  and  their  capacities  developed.  Hence,  the 
Realschule.  The  attitude  of  mind  which  revealed  itself  on  the  economic 
side  as  mercantilism,  on  the  educational  side  revealed  itself  as  a  realistic 
tendency.  Cf.  Ingram.  History  of  Political  Economy,  New  York,  18!)4, 
pp  36-54.  Cossa,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Political  Economy,  Lon 
don,  1893,  pp.  193-210. 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  67 

making  for  practical  utility  in  commonplace  life  it  tended 
toward  the  perfection  of  man  as  a  free,  rational  individual. 
In  other  words,  the  growth  of  the  democratic  spirit  came  in 
to  check  the  development  of  institutions  calculated  to  perpet- 
uate the  existing  social  order  and  to  intensify  prevailing  class 
distinctions. 

Notwithstanding  the  efforts  made  by  the  early  humanists  to 
exalt  the  individual  by  striking  off  the  fetters  of  obsolete  tra- 
dition, a  hundred  years  of  religious  fanaticism  left  him  even 
more  than  before  the  sport  of  despotic  power.  The  anarchy 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  was  followed  by  an  absolutism  that 
was  as  inquisitorial  as  it  was  petty.  The  spirit  of  the  people, 
crushed  by  a  generation  of  disaster,  was  still  further  op- 
pressed by  the  exactions  of  relentless  task-masters.  Litera- 
ture and  art  and  religion  were  enslaved  to  aristocratic  vanity. 
What  of  hope  there  was  for  freedom  hardly  dared  express 
itself  for  a  full  hundred  years.  Yet  it  would  be  misleading 
if  this  state  of  affairs  were  interpreted  as  furnishing  no  evi- 
dences of  progress. 

In  politics  the  little  electorate  of  Brandenburg  stepped  into 
a  unique  position  ;  transformed  into  the  kingdom  of  Prussia 
under  Frederick  I.  (1688-1713),  it  became  am- 

....  .     ,  ,     Rise  of  Prussia. 

bitious  to  be  counted  among  the  independent 
states  of  Europe.    It  was  an  absolute  monarchy,  to  be  sure,  but 
then  as  now  the  rule  of  the  Hohenzollerns  subordinated  all 
pretensions  of  the  aristocracy  and  privileged  classes  to  the 
higher  interests  of  the  commonweal. 

From  the  time  of  the  Great  Elector  to  Frederick  the  Great 
there  was  certain  if  slow  progress  in  the  alleviation  of  the 
burdens  of  the  peasantry ;  the  citizen  class  gradually  regained 
an  enviable  position  as  the  growth  of  the  cities  and  political 
stability  made  trade  and  commerce  more  safe  and  profitable  ; 
and  at  the  same  time  the  scions  of  nobility  were  gathered  into 
the  army  or  left  to  exterminate  themselves  by  their  own  de- 
bauchery. The  century  following  the  peace  of  Westphalia 
•  was  the  seed-time  of  political  and  social  reforms.  The  idea 
that  the  welfare  of  a  nation  is  best  subserved  when  its  citizens 


68  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

are  contented  and  happy  has  as  its  counterpart  the  idea  that 
the  welfare  of  the  whole  presupposes  the  well-being  of  all  its 
parts.  In  teaching  the  masses  of  the  people  to  respect  them- 
selves as  rational  beings,  as  free  moral  agents,  the  seeds  of 
democracy  were  sown  from  which  a  harvest  was  reaped  at  a 
later  day. 

The  growth  of  an  independent  spirit  is  also  clearly  discern- 
ible in  the  literature  of  the  period.     During  the  seventeenth 

century,  despite  the  example  of  the  reformers, 
tependrat Spirit"  ^ie  use  °^  ^ie  German  language  was  an  evidence 

of  boorishness.  The  scholars  spoke  Latin  ;  the 
nobles,  French.  Nevertheless  just  at  this  time  Ratke  and 
Comenius  threw  all  their  influence  on  the  side  of  the  mother- 
tongue  ;  a  society  was  formed  in  1617,  with  the  Prince  of 
Anhalt  at  its  head,  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  "  good  and 
pure  German  speech  ;  "  Thomasius  dared  to  use  the  German 
language  in  his  class-room  in  Leipsic  even  at  the  risk  of  exile  ; 
and  a  little  later  Wolff  shocked  the  learned  world  by  treating 
philosophy  in  the  vernacular.  And  while  the  belles-lettres  of 
this  period  "  were  the  most  depraved  and  abject  mockery  that 
has  ever  usurped  the  name  of  literature," 1  there  was  never- 
theless a  deep  undercurrent  of  native  independence.  In  the 
religious  lyrics  of  Fleming  and  Gerhardt  a  strong  and  manly 
sentiment  was  aroused  that  despised  the  vice  and  frivolity  of 
the  princely  courts,  and  "  from  more  than  one  solitary  coun- 
try parsonage  there  shone  forth  a  light  which  in  due  time 
was  to  mingle  with  the  dawning  of  a  better  day."  Keen 
satirists  reawakened  an  interest  in  the  homely  German  life 
by  exposing  the  follies  of  French  imitators,  and  in  the  mass 
of  rubbish  called  literature  there  might  occasionally  be  found 
a  genuine  expression  of  the  emotions  of  a  heart  pulsating 
with  hope.  Poor  as  it  may  have  been,  the  best  there  was  in 
literature  came  from  the  common  people.  In  the  spread  of 
individualism  class  distinctions  were  being  levelled  down. 
English  public  opinion,  English  philosophy  and  English  lit- 

1  Francke,  Social  Forces  in  German  Literature,  New  York,  1896,  p.  187. 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  69 

erature,  which  were  carried  through  France  into  Germany 
about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  re-enforced  the 
democratic  movement  and  inspired  the  middle  classes  to 
heroic  effort.  Then  there  arose  from  the  ranks  of  the  people 
master  workmen  in  prose  and  verse,  who  put  the  ideas  of  the 
people  in  enduring  form.  Klopstock,  Gellert,  Lessing,  Herder, 
Kant,  Fichte,  Goethe  and  Schiller — all  rising  from  the  ranks 
— overthrew  French  classicism  and  built  on  its  ruins  the 
stately  edifice  of  classic  German  literature. 

The  "  Storm  and  Stress "  agitation,  which  marked  the 
concentration  of  forces  that  had  been  gathering  for  a  century 
or  more,  disclosed  to  Germany  a  new  aristocracy,  a  nobility 
of  worth  instead  of  a  nobility  of  birth.  If  bloodshed  was 
averted  it  was  because  the  old  order  recognized  in  the  new 
its  legitimate  suzerain.  Hereditary  rights  and  n  ^^  perfec- 
privileges  counted  for  naught  as  compared  with  tion  of  the  HU- 
individual  character.  "The  ideal  of  human  man Type- 
perfection  which  inspired  the  movement  was  not  man  as 
a  social  being,  dependent  upon  and  determined  by  the  force 
of  surrounding  conditions,  but  man  as  such,  man  lifted 
above  the  barriers  of  his  political,  social,  moral  environ- 
ment, man  in  the  full  autonomy  of  his  own  free,  spiritual 
nature."  *  In  this  passionate  devotion  to  the  human  subject 
the  objective  world  was  ignored,  nay,  even  argued  out  of  ex- 
istence except  as  it  exists  as  a  show-world  for  the  creative 
self.  Humanity  in  its  largest  sense  was  the  characteristic 
theme  of  the  age.  Nothing  that  concerns  man,  nothing  that 
enters  into  his  life  at  all,  nothing  that  gives  him  deeper  ex- 
perience, truer  insight,  nobler  emotions,  purer  character,  can 
be  unworthy  of  study  and  investigation.  Says  Herder,  the 
greatest  preacher  of  the  gospel  of  humanity :  ' (  Whatever  be- 
longs to  the  nature  of  our  race,  every  possible  means  of  its 
improvement  and  progress,  this  is  the  object  which  a  humane 
man  has  in  mind,  this  is  the  centre  of  his  work.  Since  our 
race  must  work  out  its  own  destiny,  none  of  its  members  has 

1  Franoke,  Social  Forces  in  German  Literature,  p.  317. 


70  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

a  right  to  be  idle  in  this  work.  Everyone  must  take  part  in 
the  weal  and  woe  of  the  whole,  everyone  must  willingly  sacri- 
fice his  share  of  reason,  his  mite  of  activity,  to  the  genius  of 
the  race.  No  one,  however,  can  contribute  to  the  welfare  of 
mankind  who  does  not  make  himself  what  he  can  and  ought 
to  be  made.  Everyone,  therefore,  must  cultivate  the  seed  of 
humanity,  most  of  all  on  the  bed  where  he  himself  is  planted. 
We  all  carry  in  us  an  ideal  of  what  we  ought  to  be  and  are 
not.  The  dross  which  we  ought  to  cast  away,  the  perfec- 
tion which  we  ought  to  attain,  we  all  know.  And  since  we 
can  become  what  we  ought  to  be  only  through  ourselves 
and  others  from  whom  we  receive  or  whom  we  affect,  our 
own  humanity  necessarily  becomes  at  one  with  the  humanity 
of  others."  l 

Herder  and  Kant,  Goethe  and  Schiller,  stand  at  the  part- 
ing of  the  ways.  They  represent  the  best  that  individualism 
has  to  offer  without  its  serious  defects  ;  they  are  products  of 
a  rationalistic  age  without  sharing  overmuch  in  its  sensual 
realism ;  but  at  the  same  time  they  look  on  life  as  an  organic 
whole,  a  whole  made  up  of  parts  all  harmoniously  working 
for  the  common  good.  While  they  glorify  freedom,  hu- 
manity, individuality,  they  find  the  perfection  of  the  indi- 
vidual, and  of  humanity  as  well,  in  the  perfection  of  the 
national  type.  In  Kant's  categorical  imperative,  "  Act  as  if 
the  maxim  from  which  you  act  were  to  become  through  your 
will  a  universal  law  of  nature,"  we  see  the  moral  injunction 
that  converts  eighteenth  century  particularism  into  nine- 
teenth century  nationalism. 

What  more  natural  than  that  there  should  be  a  "  return  to 
the  Greeks"  in  quest  of  the  perfect  realization  of  the  human 
idea  !     The  versatility  of  the  Greek  type,  the 
fearlessness  and  subtlety  of  Greek  thought,  the 
exquisite  beauty  of  Greek  art,  the  clear,  exact, 
expressive  character  of  the  Greek  language,  fill  the  German 

1  Herder,  Briefe  zur  Beforderung  der  Ifumanitdt,  III.  Cited  by 
Francke. 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  71 

mind  with  admiration.  At  every  turn  the  modern  explorer 
finds  exemplified  the  union  of  beauty  and  truth,  art  and  sci- 
ence ;  everywhere  is  exhibited  the  supremacy  of  mind  over 
Bense,  of  spirit  over  matter.  Here  human  development  at- 
tains complete  perfection.  From  the  fountain-head  of  Greek 
genius  flows  a  clear  and  sparkling  stream  of  boundless  life 
and  freedom — life  in  the  fullest  sense,  joyous,  unrestrained  ; 
freedom  in  all  its  branches,  moral,  intellectual,  political, 
social.  It  is  this  conception  of  humanity  that  the  German 
mind  pictures  as  its  highest  ideal  of  life. 

Klopstock  called  himself  an  "  apprentice  of  the  Greeks  ;  " 
Winckelmann  taught  his  countrymen  to  appreciate  the  beau- 
ty of  Greek  art ;  Lessing  and  Goethe  and  Schiller  were  filled 
with  the   Greek   spirit,  and   through   them  it  became  the 
common  possession  of  the  nation.     The  result 
was  a  blending  of  the  spiritual  life  of  the  pres-    Ret^e^  tl 
ent  with  classical   life   and  thought — a  mod- 
ern Renaissance  that  indicated  the  rise  of  a  New  Humanism. 

The  ideal  of  the  new  humanism  was  radically  different 
from  the  humanistic  ideal  that  had  held  undisputed  sway 
in  the  learned  world  for  upward  of  two  centuries.  It  is  no 
longer  the  mastery  of  the  Latin  language,  the  imitation  of 
classic  style,  the  acquisition  of  eloquence  or  skill  in  dispu- 
tation ;  the  aim  now  is  to  develop  the  all-round  man  by  in- 
fusing into  his  being  the  vitalizing  spirit  of  classical  culture. 
The  Greek  language  advances  to  first  place,  not  for  the  lan- 
guage alone  but  for  the  literature,  for  the  content  rather 
than  the  form.  Moreover,  language  and  literature  are  only 
partial  records  of  the  past ;  art  and  philosophy  and  history 
speak  with  a  thousand  tongues.  "  History,"  Herder  says, 
"  opens  to  us  beautiful  bowers  of  friendship  and  discourse 
with  the  upright  and  thoughtful  of  all  times.  Here  Plato 
stands  before  me  :  there  I  hear  Socrates's  kindly  question- 
ings, and  share  in  his  last  fate.  When  Marcus  Antoninus  in 
his  chamber  communes  with  his  heart,  he  also  speaks  to 
mine  ;  and  poor  Epictetus  gives  commands  more  powerful 
than  those  of  a  king.  The  ill-starred  Tullius,  the  unfortu- 


72  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

nate  Boethius  speak  to  me,  confiding  to  me  the  circum- 
stances of  their  lives,  the  anguish  and  comfort  of  their  souls. 
Thus  history  leads  us,  as  it  were,  into  the  council  of  fate, 
teaches  us  the  eternal  laws  of  human  nature,  and  assigns  to 
us  our  own  place  in  the  great  organism  in  which  reason  and 
goodness  have  to  struggle,  to  be  sure,  with  chaotic  forces, 
but  always,  according  to  their  very  nature,  must  create  order 
and  go  forward  on  the  path  of  victory." 1  "  The  Germans," 
it  was  said,  "  should  unite  the  virtues  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  with  their  own.  They  should  study  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  merely  to  become  thereby  the  better  Germans,  and  in 
every  kind  of  virtue  to  surpass  them." 

It  was  inevitable  that  so  complete  a  change  in  the  spir- 
itual ideals  of  a  people  should  induce  a  corresponding  change 

in  their  schools.     The  new  Hanoverian  Uni- 
Movement  *    versity  of  Gottingen  became  the  centre  of  the 

pedagogical  reforms  ;  a  considerable  part  of  its 
fame  belongs  to  one  man,  J.  M.  Gesner,  who  at  the  opening 
of  the  University  was  called  to  the  chair  of  classical  languages 
from  the  rectorship  of  the  Ttiomasschule  in  Leipsic.  For 
twenty-seven  years  Gesner  devoted  all  his  marvellous  ability 
as  teacher  and  scholar  to  the  cause  of  humanity.  He  was 
the  first  of  the  new  humanists,  a  broad-minded  man,  inter- 
ested in  the  modern  literature  and  familiar  with  modern  sci- 
ence and  philosophy.  Therefore,  unlike  the  pedants  of  his 
day,  he  would  have  his  students  enjoy  the  classical  literature 
in  order  that  they  might  thereby  acquire  a  correct  standard 
of  judgment  and  taste  applicable  to  modern  morals,  nation- 
ality, language,  thought  and  feeling.  The  teacher's  duty,  he 
conceived,  is  to  direct  attention  to  the  thought-content,  to 
note  the  interdependence  of  cause  and  effect,  to  make  clear 
the  conditions  which  determine  the  course  of  events.  What 
does  the  author  mean  ?  How  does  he  prove  it  ?  Is  he  right 
or  wrong  ?  What  objections  can  be  urged  ? — these  are  the 
questions  that  give  life  to  language-study. 

1  Herder,  Ideen^  XV.,  6.     Cited  by  Francke. 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  73 

Gesner's  work  was  ably  carried  on  by  his  successor,  Heyne, 
who  did  perhaps  more  than  anyone  else  to  popularize  Greek 
poetry.  In  Saxony,  the  chief  apostle  of  the 
new  humanism  was  Ernesti,  who  followed  Ges-  schools, 
ner  as  rector  of  the  Thorn asschule.  Ernesti  and 
Heyne  were  teachers  of  teachers  ;  their  students  carried  with 
them  into  the  schools  of  central  and  north-western  Germany 
the  humanistic  spirit.  Saxony,  Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel  and 
the  country  round  about  officially  encouraged  the  new  re- 
forms. In  Prussia  the  utilitarian  theories  of  the  realists  of- 
fered considerable  opposition  to  the  realization  of  the  human- 
istic ideal,  but  with  the  entrance  of  von  Zedlitz  into  the 
ministry  of  Frederick  the  Great  in  1771  a  change  was  ap- 
parent. The  cabinet  order  of  1779  gave  von  Zedlitz  an  oppor- 
tunity to  attempt  reforms  in  some  of  the  more  important 
higher  schools  of  the  kingdom,  but  for  lack  of  co-operation 
on  the  part  of  local  school  authorities  his  efforts  were  not 
altogether  successful.1  But  in  Gedike  and  Meierotto,  re- 
spectively rectors  of  the  Friedrich-Werdersche  Schule  and 
the  Joachimstalsches  Gymnasium  in  Berlin,  he  found  able 
and  willing  collaborators.  These  men  entered  heartily  into 
the  new  methods  of  teaching  the  classics,  adopted  a  new  cur- 
riculum and  did  not  a  little  to  fix  the  character  of  the  human  • 
istic  Gymnasium.  Gedike  especially  was  an  ardent  believer 
in  the  doctrine  of  formal  discipline  in  accordance  with  the 
VVolffian  psychology.  He  recognized  the  value  of  thought- 
content  in  literature,  but  he  was  also  persuaded  that  the 
study  of  the  classical  languages  is  a  most  excellent  mental 
gymnastic.  "  You  can  become  a  successful  business  man/'  he 
declared,  "  an  excellent  judge  and  lawyer,  a  famous  physi- 
cian, even  a  beloved  and  useful  preacher,  without  Greek ; 
you  will  find  in  all  these  positions  plenty  of  able  men  who 
learned  it  as  youths  only  to  forget  it  as  men.  But  what  is 
the  inference  ? — that  the  time  given  to  it  was  wasted  ?  This 

1  Rethwisch,  Der  Sta  dsminister  Freiherr  von  Zedlitz  und  Preusscnt 
hoheres  Schulwescn  im  Zeitalter  Fricdrichs  des  Grossen,  Berlin,  1886. 


74  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

would  be  the  case  if  the  study  were  pursued  only  as  a  means 
of  information."  The  fact  is  it  serves  another  purpose  :  the 
all-round  training  of  the  mental  faculties.  "So  be  assured 
that  if  you  forget  your  Greek,  yes,  even  your  Latin  too,  you 
still  have  the  advantage  of  having  given  your  mind  a  train- 
ing and  discipline  that  will  go  with  you  into  your  future  oc- 
cupation. " 

It  is  clearly  apparent  that  there  is  chance  for  serious  con- 
flict between  the  doctrine  of  formal  discipline  and  the  theory 
of  classical  culture.  But  it  is  interesting  historically  to 
know  that  both  notions  spring  from  the  same  ideal,  the  per- 
fection of  the  individual  or  Bildung  zur  Humanitdt. 

The  pedagogical  character  of  the  humanistic  Gymnasium, 
which  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  universally 
recognized  as  the  type  of  school  corresponding  to 
e  °'  the  new  educational  ideal,  was  largely  the  work 


of  one  man,  Frederick  August  Wolf.  He  strove 
to  set  up  a  golden  mean  between  the  extremes  so  sharply  ac- 
centuated by  Gedike.  His  aim  was  to  effect  a  harmonious 
union  between  culture  and  discipline,  form  and  substance. 
I  cannot  state  his  view  better  than  to  quote  the  words  of 
Professor  Paulsen  regarding  the  purpose  of  the  Gymnasium  : 
"  Its  object  is  the  development  of  all  the  faculties  in  every 
possible  direction.  To  this  end,  a  study  of  the  ancient  lan- 
guages is  regarded  as  of  the  utmost  importance  ;  for,  by 
cultivating  the  Greek  and  Roman  languages  and  literatures, 
we  acquire  skill  in  all  mental  operations.  The  grammar  as- 
sists us  greatly  in  formulating  our  ideas  ;  the  classical  poets 
awaken  our  sense  of  the  aesthetic,  and  cultivate  a  taste  for 
beauty  and  simplicity  ;  the  study  of  the  historical  and  philo- 
sophical writers  broadens  our  horizon,  fills  us  with  noble 
sentiment  and  furnishes  a  historical  basis  for  the  proper  con- 
ception of  the  present.  The  study  of  mathematics  ranks  next 
in  importance,  and  also  furnishes  an  excellent  training  to  the 
faculties.  The  new  era  despises  the  utilitarian  and  encyclo- 
pedic attainments  so  highly  valued  by  the  previous  epoch. 
True  human  culture,  and  not  utility,  is  its  aim.  It  is  charao- 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  75 

teristic  of  ignoble  souls  to  appreciate  only  what  is  absolutely 
utilitarian,  and  to  overlook  entirely  the  importance  of  a  free, 
beautiful,  and  perfect  culture  of  the  inner  life." l 

The  utilitarian  tendencies  of  the  Enlightenment  were  eas- 
ily overcome  after  the  death  of  Frederick  the  Great.  A  new 
ideal  began  to  rule,  an  ideal  born  of  rational- 

o 

istic  thought  and  nurtured  by  the  democratic 
spirit  of  the  times.  The  theory  that  all  men  are  created  equal 
was  not  to  the  German  mind,  as  to  the  French  and  Ameri- 
can, a  self-evident  truth,  but  the  perfectibility  of  the  indi- 
vidual through  education  was  a  part  of  the  universal  creed 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  From  the  German  point  of  view 
the  development  of  man  as  man,  the  attainment  of  the  high- 
est type  of  manhood,  was  possible  only  through  humanistic 
training  according  to  the  standards  of  the  Greeks.  And  as 
particularism  grew  into  nationalism  the  humanistic  ideal  as 
interpreted  by  Stein,  Fichte  and  Humboldt  became  the  ideal 
of  the  nation.  From  the  confusion  of  two  hundred  years 
there  emerged  one  dominant  form  of  higher  education  ;  it 
was  neither  ecclesiastical  nor  partisan,  although  both  secular 
and  religious.  The  inactivity  of  the  protestant  Latin  schools, 
the  secularization  of  the  colleges  of  the  Jesuits  consequent 
upon  the  suppression  of  the  order  in  1773,  and  the  decline 
of  the  Ritterakademien  paved  the  way  for  the  complete  re- 
construction of  the  higher  schools  of  Germany  on  a  national 
basis.  This  has  been  the  work  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — Ziegler,  Geschichte  der  Padagogik,  in  Bau- 
meister's  Handbuch  der  Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichtslehre ;  Schmid's, 
Schmidt's  and  Rein's  Encyclopedias ;  Paulsen,  Geschichte  des  Gelehrteit 
Unterrichts  ;  Wiese,  Das  hohere  Schulwesen  im  Preussen,  Vol.  I. ;  Whit- 
man, Imperial  Germany,  Leipsic,  1890 ;  Hegel,  Philosophy  of  History ; 
Baring-Gould,  Germany,  Present  and  Past  ;  Wakeman,  Europe,  1598- 
1715 ;  Taylor,  Studies  in  German  Literature ;  Japp,  German  Life  and 
Literature;  Lowell,  Governments  and  Parties  in  Continental  Europe ; 
Heubaum,  Geschichte  des  Deutschen  Bildungswesens  seit  der  Mitte  des 
17ten  Jahrhunderts,  Berlin,  1905. 

1  Paulsen,  The  Forum,  XXIII.,  5  : 606-7. 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE  RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

1806-1892 

THE  chief  characteristic  of  modern  political  history  is  the 
foundation  of  great  national  states.  The  rise  of  Prussia  to  a 
commanding  position  in  continental  politics  and  her  subse- 
quent leadership  in  the  formation  of  the  German  Empire,  are 
the  central  facts  in  the  later  history  of  Europe.  The  key- 
note to  educational  progress  in  Germany,  therefore,  must  be 
sought  in  the  ideas  which  have  actuated  Prussian  leadership 
and  led  to  Prussian  success.  That  key-note  is  the  concentra- 
tion of  political  forces  and  the  struggle  for  national  unity. 

At  the  opening  of  the  century  German  patriotism  was  at  a 

low  ebb.     There  was  no  common  bond  of  sympathy  between 

Germany  at  the  *^e  vari°us  states  and  no  mutual  ambitions. 

Beginning  of  the  The  national  spirit  was  dormant.     Prussia  her* 

century.        gejf  had  fauen  f rom  ^g  ^ jg^  estate  of  Frederick 

the  Great.  The  successors  of  that  able  monarch  were  totally 
unfit  to  carry  on  his  work.  Where  he  strove  to  improve  the 
conditions  of  the  people  and. to  abolish  unjust  class  distinc- 
tions, they  suffered  themselves  to  be  led  by  base  intriguers 
and  favoured  courtiers.  Under  Frederick  William  II.  "  the 
people  who  had  learnt  already  to  associate  energy  and  heroism 
with  irreligion,  were  now  taught  to  associate  religion  with 
vice,  misgovernment  and  disgrace."  l  Even  the  well-meaning 
Frederick  William  III.  continued  on  the  downward  path. 
Corruption  in  higli  places  went  hand  in  hand  with  the  op- 

1  Seeley,  Life  and  Times  of  Stein,  Pt.  II. ,  chap.  2. 
76 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      77 

pression  of  the  common  people.  Worse  than  that,  the  venal- 
ity of  the  ruling  class  made  Germany  an  easy  prey  to  French 
aggression. 

The  defeat  of  the  Prussian  army  at  Jena  and  Auerstadt  re- 
called the  king  and  his  councillors  to  their  senses  ;  Prussia  lay 
prostrate  and  bleeding  at  the  feet  of  Napoleon. 
The  Treaty  of  Tilsit  was  the  penalty  for  "  sleep- 
ing  upon  the  laurels  of  Frederick  the  Great/' 
By  that  treaty  Prussia  lost  nearly  half  of  her  territory — all 
that  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe,  besides  her  share  of 
Poland — and  was  so  humiliated  by  the  severe  terms  of  Napo- 
leon that  one  wonders  any  national  spirit  was  left.  "  The 
state  seemed  to  have  fallen  in  pieces  because  it  had  no  prin- 
ciple of  cohesion,  and  was  held  together  by  an  artificial 
bureaucracy.  It  had  been  created  by  the  energy  of  its  govern- 
ment and  the  efficiency  of  its  soldiers,  and  now  it  appeared  to 
come  to  an  end  because  its  government  had  ceased  to  be  ener- 
getic and  its  soldiers  to  be  efficient.  The  catastrophe  could 
not  but  seem  as  irremediable  as  it  was  sudden  and  complete."  * 

The  war  which  dragged  along  for  seven  years  was  a  war  for 
the  liberation  of  Prussia  from  the  Napoleonic  yoke.  That  it 
was  finally  successful  is  due  in  the  first  instance 
to  a  remarkable  transformation  in  the  loyalty 
and  patriotism  of  the  people.  The  reforms  of 
Stein,  Hardenburg,  Scharnhorst  and  Gneisenau,  in  political 
and  military  affairs,  were  ably  seconded  by  Arndt,  Fitche,  von 
Humboldt,  and  a  score  of  others  who  strove  passionately  to 
enthuse  the  nation  with  a  higher  and  nobler  spirit. 

Baron  von  Stein  began  in  1807  the  silent  revolution  by  pro- 
posing the  Emancipating  Edict2  which  abolished  class  dis- 
tinctions in  the  tenure  of  land  and  business  oc- 

.  ,  .  Civil  Reforms. 

cupation  and  struck  the  final  blow  at  serfdom. 

He  aimed  to  liberate  the  cities  from  the  obnoxious  and  selfish 

1  Seeley,  Life  and  Times  of  Stein,  Pt.  III. ,  chap.  4. 

9  A  translation  of  the  Edict  is  given  in  Translations  and  Reprints,  is- 
sued by  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  The  Napoleonic  Aye,  Vol.  II.| 
No.  2,  Philadelphia,  189$. 


78  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

control  of  a  bureaucracy  and  to  strengthen  the  state  by  ad- 
mitting  the  people  to  a  share  in  its  government.  Naturally 
such  radical  proposals  were  displeasing  to  Napoleon  and  not 
altogether  satisfactory  to  the  royal  favourites  who  were  so 
largely  responsible  for  the  degradation  of  Prussia.  Stein  was 
soon  forced  to  lay  down  his  office  and  quit  the  country,  but 
the  seed  he  had  planted  came  to  fruition  under  Hardenburg, 
who  extended  the  rights  of  citizenship  and  laid  the  founda- 
tions for  legislation  by  representative  assemblies. 

The  year  1807  saw  also  the  beginnings  of  far-reaching  re- 
forms in  the  organization  of  the  army.  Napoleon  had  per- 
Miiitary  Reforms  mitted  tne  retention  of  only  42,000  men  under 
arms,  but  by  the  foresight  of  Scharnhorst  this 
little  band  became  the  nucleus  of  the  grand  army  which  under 
Bliicher  seven  years  afterward  helped  to  make  "Napoleon's 
overthrow  complete.  The  universal  liability  to  military  ser- 
vice and  the  constitution  of  a  trained  reserve  force  ready  to 
take  up  arms  at  a  moment's  notice,  innovations  forced  on 
Prussia  by  the  exigencies  of  the  situation,  marked  a  new  epocli 
in  European  military  procedure.  Instead  of  the  old  army, 
"Frederick's  army  grown  twenty  years  older/'  there  arose  a 
new  army  which  could  be  maintained  only  by  adequate  recog- 
nition of  merits  and  fitness  in  all  its  parts.  It  was  seen  that 
"Nothing  but  attainments  in  education  in  peace,  distin- 
guished gallantry,  activity  and  comprehension  in  war  can 
establish  the  claim  to  the  post  as  officer.  Hitherto,  through 
the  restriction  of  these  honours  to  a  single  class,  all  the  talents 
and  requirements  of  the  rest  of  the  nation  were  lost  to  the 
army,  and  this  class  found  itself  relieved  of  the  necessity  of 
acquiring  military  talents,  being  raised  to  the  highest  mili- 
tary posts  by  birth  and  long  life."  l 

The  reforms  of  Stein,  Hardenburg,  Scharnhorst  and  their 
co-workers  were  the  official  recognition  of  mighty  changes 
in  the  social  consciousness.  The  one  thought  was  the  over- 
throw of  Napoleon  and  the  restoration  of  national  indepen- 

1  JJeeley,  The  Life  and  Times  of  Stein^  Pt.  IV.,  chap.  4. 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF   THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      79 

dence.  In  this  great  undertaking  minor  differences  of  men 
and  states  sank  into  insignificance ;  there  was  no  place  for 
petty  bickerings  and  factional  strife.  The  lead-  changes  in  the 
ers  knew  that  success  could  be  attained  only  Social  con- 
through  united  effort.  Secret  societies  sprang 
up  whose  members  were  pledged  to  promote  the  interests  of 
the  state.  Through  books  and  pamphlets  and  public  ad- 
dresses patriotic  men  unceasingly  sought  to  inflame  the  peo- 
ple. The  stirring  appeals  of  Arndt  came  at  a  time  when 
"songs  were  sermons  and  sermons  were  songs."  One  of  his 
pamphlets,  "  The  Rhine,  Germany's  River,  but  never  Ger- 
many's Boundary,"  seems  now  like  an  inspired  prophecy. 
He,  in  common  with  many  others  of  his  time,  was  filled  with 
the  idea  of  German  unity — not  merely  the  aggrandizement  of 
Prussia,  but  the  birth  of  a  German  Empire.  In  one  of  his 
great  war-songs  he  asks  the  question, 

"  What  is  the  German's  Fatherland  ? 
Is  it  Prussia,  or  the  Swabian's  land  ? 
Is  it  where  the  grape  glows  on  the  Rhine  ? 
Where  sea-gulls  skim  the  Baltic's  brine  ?  " 

The  answer  finally  is  found  : 

"  Where'er  resounds  the  German  tongue, 
Where'er  its  hymns  to  God  are  sung ! 

That  is  the  land, 
Brave  German,  that  thy  Fatherland ! " 

The  services  of  Arndt  in  the  liberation  of  his  country  can- 
not be  lightly  regarded.  He  firmly  believed  in  the  imperial 
policy  and  remained  steadfast  in  that  faith,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  forty  years  after- 
ward  he  was  one  of  the  deputation  to  offer  the 
imperial  crown  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  Frederick  William 
IV.  The  influence  of  Arndt,  however,  was  mostly  with  the 
common  people.  Stein,  in  one  of  his  letters,  designates 
the  philosopher  Fichte  as  performing  remarkable  services 
among  the  leaders  in  thought  and  action.  He  says :  "Fichte's 
Addresses  to  the  Germans,  delivered  during  the  French  oc- 


80  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

cupation  of  Berlin,  and  printed  under  the  censorship  of  M. 
Biguon,  the  Intendant,  had  a  great  effect  upon  the  feeling 
of  the  cultivated  class."  Seeley,  in  citing  this  comment  of 
Stein,  observes  "  that  in  the  midst  of  such  weighty  matters  he 
should  remember  to  mention  Fichte's  addresses  is  a  remark- 
able testimony  to  the  effect  produced  by  them  on  the  public 
mind,  and  at  the  same  time  it  leads  us  to  conjecture  that  they 
must  have  strongly  influenced  his  own."1 

Certain  it  is  that  this  philosopher,  confident  in  his  own 
moral  freedom  and  conscious  of  a  growing  perfection  in  the 
pichte'sAd-  race>  moved  his  countrymen  as  they  had  not 
dresses  to  the  been  moved  since  the  days  of  the  Reformation. 
German  Nation.  He  remjn(js  them  that  "a  nation  that  is  capa- 
ble, if  it  were  only  in  its  highest  representation  and  leaders, 
of  fixing  its  eyes  firmly  on  the  vision  from  the  spiritual 
world,  Independence,  and  being  possessed  with  a  love  of  it, 
like  our  earliest  ancestors,  will  assuredly  prevail  over  a  nation 
that  is  only  used  as  the  tool  of  foreign  aggressiveness  and  for 
the  subjugation  of  independent  nations,  like  the  Roman 
armies  ;  for  the  former  have  everything  to  lose  and  the  latter 
only  something  to  gain."  Again  he  exhorts  them  :  "  On  you 
it  depends  whether  you  will  be  the  end  and  last  of  a  race 
worthy  of  little  respect  ...  or  whether  you  will  be  the 
beginning  and  germ  of  a  new  time,  glorious  beyond  all  your 
imaginations,  and  those  from  whom  posterity  will  reckon  the 
years  of  their  welfare."  By  such  words  as  these  he  urged  his 
people  to  action.  "  That  we  can  no  longer  resist  openly  has 
been  already  assumed  and  universally  admitted.  Having 
then  lost  the  first  object  of  life,  what  remains  for  us  to  do  ? 
Our  constitutions  will  be  made  for  us,  our  treaties  and  the 
nse  of  our  military  forces  will  be  prescribed  to  us,  a  code  will 
be  given  us,  even  the  right  of  judicial  trial  and  decision,  and 
the  exercise  of  it  will  be  at  times  taken  away  ;  for  the  present 
we  shall  be  relieved  of  all  these  cares.  Education  alone  has 
been  overlooked  ;  if  we  want  an  occupation  let  us  take  to  this. 

1  Seeley,  Life  and  Times  of  Stein,  Pt.  IV.,  chap.  1. 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      81 

.  .  .  I  hope  to  convince  some  Germans  and  bring  them 
to  see  that  nothing  but  education  can  rescue  us  from  all  the 
miseries  that  overwhelm  us.  I  count  especially  upon  our 
being  made  more  disposed  to  observation  and  earnest  reflec- 
tion by  our  needs."  l 

The  course  of  events  in  Prussia  during  the  war,  despite 
French  domination,  was  wonderfully  changed  for  the  better. 
Not  only  in  Prussia  but  in  all  Germany  reforms 
were  executed  which  did  much  to  alleviate  the 
hard  condition  of  the  peasantry  and  remove  re- 
strictions which  had  so  hampered  the  commercial  and  in- 
dustrial activities  of  the  middle  and  upper  classes.  Such 
loyalty  and  devotion  had  been  engendered  that  when  inde- 
pendence w^s  attained  further  effort  toward  political  freedom 
was  easily  checked  by  those  interested  in  perpetuating  the 
sovereignty  of  local  potentates.  Notwithstanding  it  had  been 
proclaimed  in  1813  by  the  Prussian  King  that  the  object  of 
his  alliance  with  Russia  was  "  to  aid  the  German  peoples  in 
recovering  freedom  and  independence,  and  to  afford  to  them 
effective  protection  and  defence  in  re-establishing  a  venerable 
Empire,"  the  Act  of  Confederation,  adopted  a  week  before 
Waterloo,  "  made  only  the  feeblest  provisions  for  the  conces- 
sion of  popular  rights  and  the  establishment  of  representative 
institutions  in  the  several  states."2  Fora  time  Austrian  in- 
fluence was  supreme.  The  Carlsbad  Conference  of  1819  ap- 
proved the  repressive  measures  of  Metternich  which  were 
aimed  at  the  freedom  of  the  press,  university  teaching,  politi- 
cal discussion  and  free  intercourse.  Thus  did  the  selfishness 
of  rulers  and  the  greed  of  royal  sycophants  triumph  over  the 
desires  of  the  people  for  freedom,  national  unity  and  national 
greatness. 

The  years  from  1819  to  1848  marked  a  period  of  utter 
hopelessness  for  the  liberal  policy.  That  which  had  seemed 
so  nearly  attained  in  1814  to  all  appearances  was  irretriev- 

1  Fichte,  Reden  an  die  Deutsche  Nation  ;  translation  by  Seeley. 
1  Bryce,  Holy  Roman  Empire,  p.  412. 
9 


82  GERMAN-  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ably  lost.  The  strict  censorship  of  the  press  and  the  lack  of 
all  constitutional  methods  of  bringing  pressure  to  bear  on  the 
government  effectually  checked  the  develop- 
ment  of  free  institutions.  Nevertheless  the 
exigencies  of  trade  and  industry  united  all  Ger- 
many, save  Austria,  in  1836  in  a  Zollverein  which  in  its 
own  way  contributed  to  the  Revolution  of  1848.  Then  for  a 
time  the  petty  rulers  of  Germany  were  thoroughly  frightened, 
and  by  liberal  promises  to  their  peoples  they  succeeded  in 
averting  the  threatened  storm,  only  to  fall  back  into  the  old 
ways  once  the  danger  was  passed.  The  fifteen  years  following 
1850  seemed  as  devoid  of  hope  as  the  thirty  years  and  more 
that  preceded.  One  advantage,  however,  had  been  gained  : 
It  was  becoming  increasingly  clear  that  German  sovereigns 
could  be  frightened  into  making  liberal  promises,  and  the  no- 
tion was  gaining  ground  that  possibly  they  could  be  compelled 
to  grant  radical  reforms.  The  rivalry  between  Prussia  and 
Austria  afforded  a  chance  for  even  a  comparatively  weak 
party  to  exert  considerable  influence.  The  trend  of  events, 
especially  the  Schleswick-Holstein  affair,  showed  unmistak- 
ably that  Prussia  was  in  the  ascendancy,  and  with  Prussia  the 
weaker  states  were  forced  to  unite.  The  union,  foreshadowed 
in  the  North  German  Confederation,  was  finally  accomplished 
on  December  31,  1870,  when  in  the  palace  of  the  French  Em- 
perors the  King  of  Prussia  accepted  the  imperial  crown  which 
his  brother  had  rejected  in  1849. 

The  German  Empire  of  to-day  is  not  altogether  the  ideal 
toward  which  German  liberalism  has  been  striving  for  three- 
German  Empire  quarters  of  a  century,  but  it  conforms  nearly 
a  Confederation  enough  to  that  ideal  to  secure  the  allegiance  of 
of  states.       j.ne  oid-time  reformers.     It  is  in  fact  little  more 
than  a  confederation  of  states,  some  of  which,  notably  Bavaria, 
are  practically  as  independent  as  ever.     There  is  still  a  censor- 
ship of  the  press  and  much  official  interference  with  the  free- 
dom of  speech  and  assembly  ;   property   qualifications  and 
the  privileges  of  birth  still  continue  to  beget  socialistic  dis- 
cord.    But  notwithstanding  these  short-comings  there  is  a 


universal  feeling  that  the  fortunes  of  the  German  people  are 
indissolubly  bound  up  with  the  future  of  Prussia.  This 
state,  with  an  area  and  a  population  greater  than  the  other 
twenty-five  together,  and  whose  king  is  German  Emperor  by 
hereditary  right,  must  continue  to  dominate  the  policy  of  the 
Empire.  If  complete  unity  has  not  been  attained  it  is  ac- 
knowledged that  it  can  be  secured  in  case  of  need.  The 
lesson  of  German  history  teaches  that  progress  comes  in  time 
of  war,  and  Prussia  stands  armed  cap-a-pie,  ready  to  lead  in 
the  next  conflict  as  she  has  in  the  past.  One  more  desperate 
struggle  and  national  unity  may  be  perfected.1 

The  idea  of  national  unity  which  has  given  colour  to  all 
the  later  political  aspirations  of  the  German  people  was  power- 
fully re-enforced  during  the  earlier  decades  of 

u      4-u       -Ji     !•-*•  •         n    German  Idealism. 

the  century  by  the  idealistic  tendency  in  all 
departments  of  thought.  That  "  enlightened  "  view  of  the 
world  which  saw  the  universe  as  a  machine  and  God  the 
master  workman,  that  conception  of  mind  as  a  store-house  of 
ideas  which  gave  no  chance  for  individual  initiative  and  per- 
sonal responsibility,  that  notion  of  art  and  literature  which 
subjected  them  to  rule  and  reason — all  characteristic  of  the  ^ 
eighteenth  century — were  transformed  at  the  touch  of  the 
leading  spirits  of  the  new  era.  Kant  showed  that  it  is  man's 
understanding,  working  on  the  things  of  sense,  that  gives 
laws  to  nature,  and  that  human  experience  would  be  forever 
impossible  without  those  forms  of  sense  perception  which 
"  lie  a  priori  in  the  mind,  ready  to  be  applied  to  all  sensa- 
tions as  they  arise."2  In  the  realm  of  scientific  discovery  "  it 
was  seen  that  reason  has  insight  only  into  that  which  it  pro- 
duces after  a  plan  of  its  own,  and  that  it  must  itself  lead  the 
way  with  principles  of  judgment  based  upon  fixed  laws,  and 
force  nature  to  answer  its  questions."3  The  outer  world,  ac- 

1  See  the  chapter  on  The  New  German  Empire  in  Bryce's  Holy  Roman 
Empire,  London,  1894. 

9  Kant,  Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  introduction  to  the  Transcendental 
^Esthetic. 

3  Kant,  Introduction  to  the  Critique  of  Pure  Reason. 


84:  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

cording  to  Kant,  is  a  show-world,  a  world  of  phenomena  ;  the 
real  world,  the  realm  of  things  as  they  are,  is  utterly  unknow- 
able. The  world  which  we  know,  the  world  in  which  we 
live  and  move  and  have  our  being,  is  nothing  apart  from  the 
apperceiving  mind  ;  the  world  which  man  delights  to  con- 
quer and  in  which  he  must  perform  his  part  as  in  the  sight 
of  God  is  the  world  of  human  thought. 

German  idealism,  born  of  Kant  and  nurtured  by  Fichte 
and  the  Romantic  School,  culminated  in  the  philosophy  of 
Hegel.     As  a  finished    product,    Hegelianism 
exercised  a  profound  influence  on  the  educa- 


tional history  of  Germany.  "  In  fact,"  says 
Paulsen,  "  his  philosophy  may  well  be  called  the  Prussian 
state-philosophy  during  the  years  from  1820  to  1840,  and  in 
a  double  sense  ;  it  was  the  philosophical  system  officially 
acknowledged  by  the  state  or  at  least  by  the  Ministry  of 
Education,  and  on  the  other  hand  Hegel  was  the  enthusiastic 
apostle  of  the  'state-idea/"1  But  potent  as  was  Hegelian- 
ism,  it  was  rather  a  static  than  a  dynamic  force.  Its  subtle- 
ties made  it  a  convenient  shelter  for  all  manner  of  reactionary 
and  repressive  measures.  It  was  never  so  indubitably  pro- 
gressive as  the  earlier  representatives  of  the  idealistic  school. 
During  the  generation  preceding  1805,  men  of  genius  were 
almost  deified  in  the  select  circles  of  their  adorers.  Jena 
and  Weimar  sprang  into  eminence  because  moved  by  the  pres- 
ence of  Goethe  and  Schiller,  Herder  and  Fichte,  and  their 
satellites. 

The  world,  as  Fichte  conceived  it,  is  the  world  that  the 
self  makes,  the  world  that  it  freely  chooses  to  make,  and  be- 
cause of  its  imperfections  and  limitations  the  self  must  needs 
work  to  overcome  it.  This  is  the  whole  duty  of  man  :  work 
to  upbuild  the  moral  order  of  the  universe.  The  world  is 
what  we  make  it,  good  or  bad,  great  or  small,  bond  or  free. 
Go  forth  and  do  something  in  a  world  that  can  be  made 
better  by  your  action.  This  is  the  spirit  that  cried  out  in 

1  Paulsen,  German  Universities,  New  York,  1895,  p.  68. 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      85 

the  Addresses  to  the  German  Nation  that  it  bethink  itself  of 
the  duty  resting  upon  it  to  create  the  truly  civilized  state  and 
give  back  freedom  to  the  world.  Never  did  philosophy  find 
a  more  eloquent  advocate  or  touch  more  surely  a  nation's 
heart ! 

The  philosophy  of  the  Eomantic  school  lacked  the  ethical 
basis  of  Fichte's  idealism.  In  its  practical  aspects  it  bordered 
on  the  immoral  by  granting  to  the  budding  ^  p^j  h 
philosophers,  literati,  and  professed  geniuses  a  of  the  Romantic 
freedom  of  action  which  amounted  in  many  School, 
cases  to  unbridled  license.  But  it  must  be  acknowledged  that 
in  this  circle  there  was  a  buoyancy  of  spirit  and  an  enthusi- 
asm in  action  which  inevitably  made  for  progress.  That 
Weltanschauung  which  leaves  to  man's  caprice  the  determi- 
nation of  his  own  world  does  not  conduce  to  social  stability, 
but  it  may  serve  a  good  purpose  in  casting  aside  useless  tra- 
ditions. In  breaking  with  the  past  the  Romantic  School  saw 
fit  to  dispense  with  foreign  culture,  whether  in  classical  or 
modern  garb,  except  as  it  contributed  to  German  needs. 
German  literature,  art  and  philosophy  were  advanced  to  first 
place.  The  Nibelungenlied  was  heralded  as  the  German  Iliad, 
and  the  half-forgotten  singers  of  the  sixteenth  century,  de- 
spised in  their  own  day  because  they  could  use  only  the  peas- 
ant speech,  were  now  lauded  because  they  wrote  in  German. 
In  deference  to  this  increasing  respect  for  the  individual  man, 
especially  if  he  be  German,  we  find  an  increasing  interest  in 
the  homelier  element  of  life,  a  broader  sympathy  for  all  that 
is  human.  The  folk-tales  of  the  brothers  Grimm  and  all  the 
wealth  of  song  and  story  which  to-day  seems  so  characteris- 
tically German  must  be  credited  to  this  romantic  movement. 

A  survey  of  the  spiritual  forces  current  in  German  life  at 
the  turn  of  the  century  easily  discovers  the  secret  of  the 
political  and  military  strength  of  the  German 
nation.     From  the  ashes  of  the  Thirty  Years'    Ci*cld<»l8o£ 

Education. 

War  there  had  sprung  a  proud  and  ambitious 

people  determined  to  redeem  the  Fatherland.     Deprived  of 

their  inheritance  from  the  Renaissance  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 


86  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

tury  by  circumstances  over  which  they  had  no  control,  but  of 
which  they  were  an  integral  part,  they  profited  in  the  eigh- 
teenth from  their  birthright.  In  the  meantime  the  stern 
lessons  of  history  had  taught  them  the  value  of  co-operation 
and  the  dignity  and  worth  of  manhood.  True,  the  lesson 
had  been  but  imperfectly  learned  ;  nevertheless  it  was  clearly 
apparent  to  the  leaders  in  the  reconstruction  of  Germany  that 
nobility  of  birth  supported  by  a  foreign  culture  must  event- 
ually give  way  to  a  higher  and  more  patriotic  nobility  rooted 
in  a  truly  German  civilization.  The  problem  was  how  best 
to  weld  together  the  discordant  elements  in  the  state  and  to 
realize  in  the  national  life  the  highest  ideals  of  individual 
and  social  excellence.  Down  to  the  Napoleonic  era  this  had 
been  regarded  as  peculiarly  the  prerogative  of  the  church ; 
the  trend  of  events  guided  by  the  collectivistic  idea  imposed 
this  task  in  self-defence  upon  the  state.  The  reconstruction 
of  the  school  system  and  its  adaptation  to  this  end  followed 
as  a  matter  of  course. 

In  the  reorganization  of  the  schools  to  conform  to  the  civic 

ideal  of  education  two  main  tendencies  are  noticeable  :  First, 

the  centralization  of  the  school   system,   the 

!P!ob!e]?r0f     conversion  of  a  vast  collection  of  schools  of  all 

School  Reform. 

grades  into  a  single  system  capable  of  direction, 
supervision  and  management  by  a  central  authority  acting  for 
the  state  ;  second,  the  selection  of  materials  of  instruction, 
the  formation  of  courses  of  study  and  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing best  calculated  to  subserve  the  needs  of  the  different 
classes  of  society  while  promoting  the  interests  of  the  state. 
The  former  deals  with  the  external  affairs  of  the  schools  ;  the 
latter  is  concerned  solely  with  their  internal  arrangement  and 
methods  of  work.  The  one  has  always  enjoyed  a  close  rela- 
tionship with  practical  politics  and  differs  in  the  various  states 
according  to  the  political  peculiarities  of  each  ;  the  other,  in- 
dependent of  state  boundaries,  is  conditioned  primarily  by 
the  social,  industrial  and  spiritual  needs  of  the  people. 

The  development  of  central  control  of  the  schools  in  Prus- 
sia has  been  even  more  closely  in  touch  with  the  political  ex- 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      87 

pansion  of  the  monarchy  than  in  most  other  German  states. 
A  direct  and  systematic  inspection  of  the  evangelical  schools 
followed  the  Reformation  in  Brandenburg,  and 
Joachim  II.  established  in  1552  a  consistory  for 
church  and  school  affairs.    In  1573  the  Elector, 
John  George,  prescribed  regulations  for  the  inspection  and 
general  conduct  of  schools.     In  the  privy  council  of  Joachim 
Frederick  there  appeared  in  1604  a  special  board  to  which 
was  delegated  supervisory  powers  over  the  church  consistory. 
But  inasmuch  as  all  school  inspectors  were  clergymen  there  was 
no  thought  of  making  the  schools  independent  of  the  church. 
During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  all  was  lost  that  had  been  gained. 
The  wanton  destruction  of  property  and  the  loss  of  population 
effectually  checked  all  educational  progress.     In  1687  Elector 
Frederick  William  made  an  urgent  plea  for  the  re-establish- 
ment of  the  school  system  on  the  lines  marked  out  by  his  pred- 
ecessors.   The  founding  of  the  Prussian  kingdom  in  1701  first 
gave  an  opportunity  for  effectual  centralization.    Under  Fred-  y 
erick  William  II.  regulations  were  enforced  which  secured 
considerable  uniformity.     Frederick  the  Great  continued  the 
development  along  the  lines  marked  out  by  his  father.     In 
1750  he  placed  all  the  provincial  consistories,  except  that  of 
Silesia,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Berlin  consistory,  and  by 
so  doing  school  affairs  were  brought  more  than  ever  under 
one  central  control.     A  practical  result  was  that  from  a  large 
number  of  weak  Latin  schools  with  no  definite  course  of  study 
there  were  evolved  a  few  really  good  Gymnasien,  with  uni- 
form curricula.      In  1771,  Baron  von  Zedlitz  became  head 
of  the  Department  of  Lutheran  Church  and  School  Affairs. 
From  that  time  on  till  his  retirement  from  office  in  1788 
there  was  rapid  progress.     At  his  instance  King  Frederick 
William  II.  instituted  in  1787  the  Oberschulcollegium,  aboard 
charged  with  the  reorganization  of  the  school  system  and  the 
oversight  of  all  school  affairs  in  the  monarchy.1 

'The  duty  of  the  board,  according  to  the  royal  rescript,  was  "das  ge- 
tammte  Schulwesen  in   Unscren  Landcn  auf  das  zweckmdssigste  einzv- 


88  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

Von  Zedlitz  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  board,  and  with 
him  were  associated  the  Berlin  school-masters,  J.  H.  Meierotto 
and  Frederick  Gedike,  who  were  to  be  travelling  inspectors  of 
schools  in  the  provinces.  One  of  the  most  important  regula- 
tions of  the  Oberschulcollegium  was  the  edict  (1788)  insti- 
tuting  a  system  of  leaving  examinations  in  all  the  higher 
schools  (Abiturientenprufungeri).1  This  regulation,  however, 
like  most  of  those  that  had  gone  before,  was  of  little  practical 
importance.  Whatever  was  pleasing  to  the  church  or  the 
clerical  parties  was  sure  to  succeed  ;  whatever  was  opposed  to 
clerical  interests  was  equally  certain  of  failure.  In  fact  it 
was  the  King's  settled  policy  in  all  his  enactments  to  bind 
the  school  more  closely  to  the  church,  and  for  this  purpose 
the  Oberschulcollegium  was  filled  up  with  representatives  of  the 
clerical  parties.  More  than  that,  Gedike's  dream  of  a  cen- 
tralized and  uniform  school  system  was  officially  dispelled  by 
a  refusal  to  extend  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Oberschulcollegium 
even  to  all  the  higher  schools  of  the  monarchy.  At  the  end 
of  the  century  there  was  really  no  state  school  system  ;  such 
system  as  obtained  was  directly  under  the  control  of  the 
church  and  only  indirectly  responsible  to  the  state. 

The  first  step  in  the  secularization  of  the  schools  was  taken 
in  1794  by  the  promulgation  of  the  Allgemeine  Landrecht, 
the  Prussian  Magna  Charta,  itself  the  surest  guarantee  of  the 
strength  of  the  democratic  spirit.  The  common  law  basis 
for  educational  institutions  was  stated  in  these  unequivocal 

richten,  und  nach  den  Umstdnden  der  Zeit  und  der  Beschaffenheit  der 
Schulen  immer  zu  verbessern.  Es  muss  darauf  Acht  haben,  dass  nach 
Verschiedenheit  der  Schulen  injeder  der  nothwendigeund  niitzlichste  Unter- 
richt  ertheilt  werde  ;  es  muss  mit  Nachdruck  darauf  halten,  dass  iiberall 
zweckmdssige  Schulbiicher  gebraucht  und  eingefuhrt,  und  wo  solche  man- 
geln,  durch  tiichtige  Manner  eingefuhrt  wer den. —  Wir  legen  dem  O.  S.  C. 
die  Befugniss  bei,  an  alle  Landesregierungen  und  Consistorien,  auch  an 
das  ostpreuss.  Staatsministerium  Rescripte  und  Befehle  zu  erlassen." 
(Wiese,  Das  hohere  Schulwesen  in  Preussen,  I.,  p.  3.) 

1  The  various  regulations  governing  the  examinations  down  to  1863  aie 
given  in  Wiese,  Das  hohere  Schulwesen  in  Preussen,  I. ,  pp.  478-524.  Later 
details  are  given  by  Kiibler. 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS     89 

terms :    "  Schools    and    universities   are   state   institutions, 
charged  with  the  instruction  of  youth  in  useful  information 
and   scientific  knowledge.      Such  institutions     separation  of 
may  be  founded  only  with  the  knowledge  and     Church  and 
consent  of  the  state.     All  public  schools  and 
educational  institutions  are  under  the  supervision  of  the 
state,  and  are  at  all  times  subject  to  its  examination  and  in-     > 
spection."    These  were  brave  words,  but  they  had  little  actual  - 
significance  until  the  people  were  fully  roused  to  the  neces- 
sities of  national  independence  and  national  unity. 

The  organization  of  the  Prussian  school  system  waited  on 
the  reorganization  of  the  Prussian  state.  On  October  5, 
1807,  Baron  von  Stein  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  entire  civil  administration  of  the  monarchy.  Humboidt;0 
One  of  his  first  acts  was  to  abolish  the  Ober- 
schulcollegium  in  order  effectually  to  rid  himself  of  clerical 
domination.  In  1808  the  bureau  of  public  instruction  was 
transferred  to  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  in  which  it 
formed  one  of  the  six  sections.  The  Section  fur  Cultus  und 
den  offentlichen  Unterricht  was  presided  over  by  William  von  / 
Humboldt.  "  The  Providential  man  appeared  in  Humboldt, 
as  great  a  master  of  the  science  and  art  of  education  as 
Scharnhorst  was  master  of  the  organization  of  war.  Not 
only  was  he  himself,  as  a  scholar  and  an  investigator,  on 
a  level  with  the  very  first  of  his  age,  not  only  had  he  lived 
with  precisely  those  masters  of  literature,  Schiller  and  Goethe, 
who  were  most  deliberate  in  their  self-culture,  and  have 
therefore  left  behind  most  instruction  on  the  higher  parts  of 
education,  but  he  had  been  especially  intimate  with  F.  A. 
Wolf.  Formed  by  such  teachers,  and  supported  by  a  more 
intense  belief  in  culture  than  almost  any  man  of  his  time, 
Humboldt  began  his  work  in  April,  1809."  *  His  efforts 
were  directed  from  the  first  to  making  the  education  of  the 
Prussian  youth  commensurate  with  the  responsibilities  of 
Prussian  citizenship.  The  schools  must  exist  for  the  state 

1  Seeley,  Life  and  Times  of  Stein^  Pt.  VI.,  chap.  3. 


90  G&nAtAtf  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 


and  must  learn  how  to  train  up  intelligent,  God-fearing,  pa- 
triotic citizens.  For  the  most  part  his  efforts  were  direct- 
ed to  the  internal  improvement  of  the  schools,  but  it  was  seen 
that  no  radical  change  could  be  made  without  first  putting 
the  schools  in  such  a  position  that  unwilling  pedagogues 
should  be  forced  to  obey  governmental  requests.  So  far  as 
the  higher  schools  were  concerned  there  was  little  uniformity 
in  the  courses  of  study  and  no  guarantee  that  their  graduates 
were  fitted  for  university  work  and  the  civil  service,  except 
the  uncertain  entrance  tests  applied  by  the  universities  them- 

i  selves.  Accordingly  in  1812  the  system  of  final  examinations 
which  had  fallen  into  abeyance  was  revived  and  enforced. 
But  the  time  was  not  ripe  for  its  universal  application.  Fail- 
ure to  pass  this  examination,  which  was  conducted  by  local 
school  officers  under  the  personal  supervision  of  a  state  in- 
spector, did  not  prevent  a  student's  admission  to  the  uni- 
versity nor  to  the  civil  service  ;  the  only  penalty  was  in- 
eligibility  for  the  many  valuable  stipends  controlled  by  the 
state.  Not  till  the  second  decade  of  the  century  was  the 
privilege  of  admission  to  the  civil  service  withdrawn  from 
those  who  failed  to  pass  the  final  examinations  of  the  Gym- 
nasien.  The  decisive  step  was  taken  in  1834,  when  it  was  de- 

\  creed  that  candidates  for  the  learned  professions  must  have 
as  a  prerequisite  for  admission  to  the  state  examinations  a 
certificate  of  graduation  from  an  approved  higher  school. 
Inasmuch  as  the  leaving  examinations  of  the  higher  schools 
are  conducted  by  a  board  of  school  officers  in  the  presence  of 
a  representative  of  the  department  of  public  instruction, 
whose  approval  is  necessary  in  passing  a  candidate,  it  will  be 
seen  how  completely  the  essential  control  of  the  schools  had 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  central  board. 

The  plan  of  administration  as  proposed  by  Stein  and  elab- 
orated by  Humboldt  and  his  successors  continued  in  force 
down  to  the  year  1817,  when  that  section  of  the 
Interior  Department  which  included  the  bureau 
of  education  was  erected  into  an  independent 
ministry,  called  the  Ministerium  der  geistlichen  und  Unter- 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      91 

richtsangelegenheiten.  The  chief  of  the  new  Department  was 
Baron  Von  Altenstein,  who  remained  in  office  until  his  death 
in  1840 — a  regime  which  marks  the  triumph  of  bureaucracy, 
as  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  for  eight  years,  1824- 
1832,  the  Director  of  the  Police  Bureau  was  officially  in 
charge  of  the  department  of  public  instruction.1 

1  "In  1817,  the  students  of  several  universities  assembled  at  the  Wart- 
burg  in  order  to  celebrate  the  tercentenary  of  the  Reformation.  In 
the  evening,  a  small  number  of  them,  the  majority  having  already  left, 
were  carried  away  by  enthusiastic  zeal,  and,  in  imitation  of  Luther,  burnt 
a  number  of  writings  recently  published  against  German  freedom,  to- 
gether with  other  emblems  of  what  was  considered  hateful  in  the  insti- 
tutions of  some  of  the  German  states.  These  youthful  excesses  were 
viewed  by  the  governments  as  symptoms  of  grave  peril.  At  the  same  time, 
a  large  number  of  students  united  to  form  one  great  German  Burschen- 
schaft (association  of  students),  whose  aim  was  the  cultivation  of  a  love 
of  country,  a  love  of  freedom,  and  the  moral  sense.  Thereupon  increased 
anxiety  on  the  part  of  the  governments,  followed  by  vexatious  police 
interference.  Matters  grew  worse  in  consequence  of  the  rash  act  of  a 
fanatical  student,  named  Sand.  It  became  known  that  the  Russian 
government  was  using  all  its  powerful  influence  to  have  liberal  ideas 
suppressed  in  Germany,  and  that  the  play-wright  Kotzebue  had  secretly 
sent  to  Russia  slanderous  and  libellous  reports  on  German  patriots. 
Sand  travelled  to  Mannheim  and  thrust  a  dagger  into  Kotzebue' s  heart. 
The  consequences  were  most  disastrous  to  the  cause  of  freedom  in  Ger- 
many. The  distrust  of  the  governments  reached  its  height :  it  was  held 
that  this  bloody  deed  must  needs  be  the  result  of  a  wide-spread  con- 
spiracy :  the  authorities  suspected  demagogues  everywhere.  .  .  . 
Many  young  men  were  thrown  into  prison  ;  gymnastic  and  other  societies 
were  arbitrarily  suppressed ;  a  rigid  censorship  of  the  press  was  estab- 
lished, and  the  freedom  of  the  universities  restrained ;  various  professors, 
among  them  Arndt,  whose  songs  had  helped  to  fire  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
Frciheits-kampfer — the  soldiers  of  freedom — in  the  recent  war,  were  de- 
prived of  their  offices;  the  Burschenschaft  was  dissolved,  and  the  wearing 
of  their  colours,  the  future  colours  of  the  German  Empire,  black,  red, 
and  gold,  was  forbidden.  .  .  .  The  universities  continued  to  uphold 
the  national  idea ;  the  Burschenschaft  soon  secretly  revived  as  a  private 
association,  and  as  early  as  1820  there  again  existed  at  most  German  uni- 
versities Burschenschaften,  which,  though  their  aims  were  not  sharply  de- 
fined, bore  a  political  colouring  and  placed  the  demand  for  German  unity 
in  the  foreground."  (Krause,  The  Growth  of  German  Unity,  chap.  8.) 


92  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

The  external  organization  of  the  school-system  was  fully 
accomplished  in  1825  when  provincial  school-boards  (Provin- 
zial  Schulcollegien],  responsible  to  the  Ministry  of  Education, 
were  instituted  in  the  several  provinces  of  the  kingdom  side 
by  side  with  the  church  consistories.  At  this  point  the 
schools  were  finally  separated  from  the  church  and  state  con- 
trol was  assured. 

The  great  work,  however,  which  Humboldt  set  himself  to 
do  was  the  vitalizing  of  the  schools  from  within.  It  need  not 
be  related  here  in  detail  how  that  work  was  Reforms  in 
done  in  the  field  of  elementary  or  of  university  Elementary  Ed- 
education.  "  The  movement  in  behalf  of  popu- 
lar schools  commenced  by  inviting  C.  A.  Zeller,  of  Wurtem- 
berg,  to  Prussia.  Zeller  was  a  young  theologian  who  had 
studied  under  Pestalozzi  in  Switzerland,  and  was  thoroughly 
imbued  with  the  method  and  spirit  of  his  master.  On  his 
return  he  had  convened  the  school-teachers  of  Wiirtemberg  in 
barns,  for  want  of  better  accommodations  being  allowed  him, 
and  inspired  them  with  a  zeal  for  Pestalozzi's  methods,  and 
for  a  better  education  of  the  whole  people.  On  removing  to 
Prussia  he  first  took  charge  of  the  seminary  at  Koenigsberg, 
soon  after  founded  the  seminary  at  Karalene,  and  went  about 
into  different  provinces  meeting  with  teachers,  holding  con- 
ferences, visiting  schools  and  inspiring  school  officers  with  the 
right  spirit.  The  next  step  taken  was  to  send  a  number  of 
young  men,  mostly  theologians,  to  Pestalozzi's  institution  at 
Iferten,  to  acquire  his  method,  and  on  their  return  to  place 
them  in  new  or  reorganized  teachers'  seminaries.  To  these 
new  agents  in  school  improvement  were  joined  a  large  body  of 
zealous  teachers,  and  patriotic  and  enlightened  citizens,  who, 
in  ways  and  methods  of  their  own,  laboured  incessantly  to  con- 
firm the  Prussian  state,  by  forming  new  organs  for  its  inter- 
nal life,  and  new  means  of  protection  from  foreign  foes. 
They  proved  themselves  truly  educators  of  the  people.  Al- 
though the  government  thus  not  only  encouraged,  but  di- 
rectly aided,  in  the  introduction  of  the  methods  of  Pestalozzi 
into  the  public  schools  of  Prussia,  still  the  school-boards  in  the 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      93 

different  provinces  sustained  and  encouraged  those  who  ap- 
proved and  taught  on  different  systems.  .  .  .  Music, 
which  was  one  of  Pestalozzi's  great  instruments  of  culture, 
was  made  the  vehicle  of  patriotic  songs,  and  through  them  the 
heart  of  all  Germany  was  moved  to  bitter  hatred  of  the  con- 
queror who  had  desolated  her  fields  and  homes,  and  humbled 
the  pride  of  her  monarchy.  All  these  efforts  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  elementary  education,  accompanied  by  expensive 
modifications  in  the  establishments  of  secondary  and  supe- 
rior education,  were  made  when  the  treasury  was  impover- 
ished, and  taxes  the  most  exorbitant  in  amount  were  levied  on 
every  province  and  commune  of  the  kingdom." l  From  such 
beginnings  has  grown  the  most  magnificent  system  of  common 
schools  in  the  world. 

The  influence  of  the  reformers  was  felt  quite  as  distinctly 
in  university  education.  Seeley  says  that  "it  was  on  the 
highest  department  of  education  that  Humboldt  ReformB  in  Uni. 
left  his  mark  most  visibly.  He  founded  the  vereity  Educa- 
University  of  Berlin  ;  he  gave  to  Europe  a  new  tion* 
seat  of  learning,  which  has  ever  since  stood  on  an  equality 
with  the  very  greatest  of  those  which  Europe  boasted  before. 
We  are  not  indeed  to  suppose  that  the  idea  of  such  a  univer- 
sity sprang  up  for  the  first  time  at  this  moment,  or  in  the  brain 
of  Humboldt.  Among  all  the  losses  which  befell  Prussia  by 
the  Peace  of  Tilsit  none  was  felt  more  bitterly  than  the  loss 
of  the  University  of  Halle,  where  Wolf  himself  had  made  his 
fame.  Immediately  after  the  blow  fell,  two  of  the  professors  of 
Halle  made  their  way  to  Memel  and  laid  Before  the  King  a 
proposal  to  establish  a  High  School  at  Berlin.  This  was  on 
August  22,  1807.  ...  A  university  is  not  founded  in 
a  day,  and  accordingly  while  Stein  held  office  the  design  did 
not  pass  beyond  the  stage  of  discussion.  .  .  .  Humboldt 
sent  in  his  report  on  May  12,  1809,  and  on  August  16th  fol- 
lowed the  Order  of  Cabinet  assigning  to  the  new  University, 
along  with  the  Academies  of  Science  and  Art,  an  annual  do- 

>H,  Barnard,  Am.  Journal  of  Education^  VIII.,  405. 


94  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

nation  of  150,000  thalers,  and  the  palace  of  Prince  Henry  as 
its  residence.  During  the  rest  of  his  term  of  office  Humboldt 
was  occupied  in  negotiations  with  eminent  men  of  science  all 
over  Germany,  whose  services  he  hoped  to  procure.  He  was 
certainly  not  unsuccessful.  He  secured  Fichte  for  philoso- 
phy ;  Schleiermacher,  De  Wette,  and  Marheineke  for  the- 
ology ;  Savigny  and  Schmalz  for  jurisprudence ;  Friedlander, 
Kolrausch,  Hufeland,  and  Reil  for  medicine  ;  Wolf,  Butt- 
mann,  Bockh,  Heindorf,  and  Spalding  for  the  study  of  an- 
tiquity ;  Niebuhr  and  Riihs  for  history ;  Tralles  for  mathe- 
matics (Gauss  refused  the  invitation).  The  University  was 
opened  at  Michaelmas  of  1810,  and  as  the  first  result  of  it 
the  first  volume  of  Niebuhr's  Roman  History,  opening  so  vast 
a  field  of  historical  speculation,  was  published  in  1811.  "* 

The  reforms  which  were  inaugurated  in  the  higher  schools 
were  characteristic  of  the  age  and  reflect  the  personalities  of 
Reforms  in  Sec-  the  great  leaders  in  educational  thought.  Hum- 
ondary  Bduca-  boldt  and  Wolf  were  ardent  humanists ;  both 
were  profound  students  and  enthusiastic  ad- 
mirers of  Greek  culture.  It  was  natural  that  their  influence 
should  be  exerted  in  favour  of  the  new  humanism  which  had 
already  won  a  place  for  itself  in  central  and  northern  Ger- 
many under  the  leadership  of  the  University  of  Gottingen. 
Wolf,  himself,  had  been  for  years  a  missionary  of  the  new  cult 
in  Halle  ;  Herder  had  made  it  at  home  in  the  Gymnasium  in 
Weimar.  It  might  seem,  therefore,  to  the  casual  observer  that 
nothing  could  prevent  the  triumph  of  Greek  ideals.  But 
Humboldt  was  in  office  only  about  a  year  and  Wolf's  temper- 
ament was  not  such  as  to  make  him  a  popular  leader  of  men. 
More  than  that  the  reforms  of  the  higher  schools  were  scarcely 
more  than  begun  when  the  reactionary  tendency  in  all  lines  of 
civic  and  mental  activity  began  to  set  in.  To  be  sure  much 
had  been  accomplished  before  the  true  significance  of  the 
reforms  were  fully  realized,  and  a  machinery  had  been  set  in 
motion  which  had  to  be  directed  and  could  not  be  stopped. 

1  Seeley,  Life  and  Times  of  Stein,  Pt.  VI.,  chap.  3. 


RECONSTRUCTION  OP  Tttfi  HlQBER  SCHOOLS     95 

The  direction,  however,  was  not  altogether  in  harmony 
with  the  views  of  those  who  had  planned  the  educational 
reforms. 

A  survey  of  the  educational  field  at  the  beginning  of  the 
century  discloses  two  radically  different  types  of  classical 
schools.  The  Weimar  Gymnasium  was  a  lead- 

i-          e  -u,  v,  •  i-     -j      i       Main  Proems. 

ing  representative  of  the  new  humanistic  ideal  ; 
Schulpforta  was  the  best  known  institution  of  the  old  type. 
Bothwere  strong  and  vigorous  schools  and  well  calculated 
for  leadership  in  the  educational  world.  Schulpforta  made 
the  doctrine  of  formal  discipline  the  chief  article  in  its  creed  ; 
the  critical  study  of  the  ancient  languages  was  the  all-impor- 
tant means  to  this  end.  Its  supporters  were  especially  nu- 
merous in  southern  Germany  and  wherever  clerical  influence, 
particularly  Jesuitical,  was  felt.  The  Weimar  school  was 
the  creation  of  Herder,  who  set  as  his  educational  ideal  the 
Bildung  zur  Humanitat.  In  effect  the  opposition  was  strict- 
ly between  the  old  humanism  and  the  new. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  if  Humboldt  and  Wolf  had 
come  into  power  ten  years  earlier  the  victory  of  the  new  ideas 
would  have  been  more  complete.  As  it  was  they  were  forced 
to  reckon  with  the  conservatism  of  school-masters  and  found 
it  insuperable.  Yet  no  one  but  possibly  they  themselves 
would  count  their  labour  lost.  While  they  did  not  attain  the 
heights  of  their  ambition  they  made  the  higher  schools  of  the 
kingdom  a  hundred-fold  more  efficient  than  they  had  ever 
been  before.  The  ideals  of  Greek  culture  were  so  built  into 
the  very  foundations  of  the  school  system  that  it  has  since 
been  impossible  to  remove  them. 

Perhaps  the  wisest  measure  that  Humboldt  introduced  was 
the  one  relating  to  the  certification  of  teachers  as  set  forth 
in  the  edict  of  1810. l     This  measure  provided 
for  a  searching  examination  of  all  candidates 
for  teachers*  positions  and  effectually  checked 
what  had  been  a  common  practice  of  permitting  theological 

1  See  Wiese,  Das  hohere  Schulwesen  in  Preusscn,  I.,  pp.  545  ff. 


96  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

students  to  eke  out  an  existence  while  waiting  for  a  suitable 
post  in  the  church.  The  position  of  teacher  was  raised  at 
once  to  something  like  professional  dignity.  And  from  that 
day  to  this  the  teaching  profession  has  steadily  grown  in  tech- 
nical and  social  importance. 

The  introduction  of  leaving  examinations  in  1812  put  a 
premium  on  uniformity  in  school  work.     It  was  also  decreed 
at  the  same  time  that  all  classical  schools,  en- 
titled  to  fit  students  for  the  universities,  wheth- 
er known  by  the  title  of  Gymnasium,  Lyceum, 
Pddagogium,  Collegium,   Lateinische  Schule,  or  what  not, 
should  henceforth  be  called  Gymnasien. 

For  the  guidance  of  these  schools  Humboldt  commissioned 
Silvern,  a  pupil  of  Fichte  and  Wolf  and  later  a  member  of 
Gedike's  seminar,  to  prepare  a  general  course 
of  Itiidy.  This  was  laid  before  Wolf  for  his 
criticism  as  early  as  1811,  but  its  publication 
was  delayed  till  1816.  It  did  not  meet  Wolf's  approval,  but 
Paulseu  suggests l  that  perhaps  his  opposition  was  due  as 
much  to  the  fact  that  he  himself  was  not  asked  to  prepare  it 
as  to  the  actual  contents  of  the  document.  Be  this  as  it 
may,  it  is  certainly  true  that  while  Wolf  may  justly  be  called 
the  father  of  the  modern  Gymnasium,  the  child  was  not  ex- 
actly the  image  of  the  parent.  Throughout  the  ten  years' 
course  the  main  subjects  of  instruction  were  Latin,  Greek 
and  mathematics.  The  time  allotment  in  the  upper  classes 
was  as  follows  :  Latin,  8  hours  a  week  ;  Greek,  7  ;  German, 
4  ;  mathematics,  6 ;  history  and  geography,  3  ;  religion,  2 ; 
and  science,  2.  No  provision  whatsoever  was  made  for  in- 
struction in  the  elements  of  philosophy,  French,  or  subjects 
designed  to  afford  "  useful  information."  This  was  the  op- 
posite of  eighteenth  century  utilitarianism.  The  aim  of 
instruction  in  the  higher  schools  was  "  the  formal  develop- 
ment of  good  understanding  and  righteous  judgment." 

The  Lehrplan  of  1816  was  evidently  a  compromise.     The 

1  Paulsen,  Gcschichte  des  Gelchrten  Unterrichts,  p.  576. 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      97 

special  importance  attached  to  Greek  was   pleasing  to  the 
new  humanists  ;  the  increased  number  of  hours  devoted  to 
mathematics  was  a  sop  to  the  realists  and  those 
who  upheld  the  value  of  formal  mental  disci- 
pline.     As  a  result  it  was  generally  unsatisfac- 
tory and  never  universally  adopted.1     Teachers  could  not  be 
found  who  knew  enough  of  Greek  or  mathematics  to  meet 
the  demands  of  the  official  program.     How  to  secure  able 
teachers  and  make  their  work  most  effective  was  the  problem 
of  the  next  twenty  years. 

The  first  requirement  was  better  scholarship.  With  better 
prepared  students  the  universities  were  soon  able  to  turn  out 
more  scholarly  graduates.  Not  only  was  the 

i  •,  ,  •  j-i  j    Better  Teachers 

general  university  instruction  steadily  improved  Needed 
during  the  early  decades  of  the  century,  but 
special  attention  was  everywhere  given  to  the  training  of 
teachers.  Philological  seminars  were  established  in  all  the 
universities  before  1825 2  which  ably  carried  on  the  work 
so  well  marked  out  by  Gesner  in  Gottingen  and  Wolf  in 
Halle.  Pedagogical  ^seminars  were  also  established  at  this 
time  which  did  much  to  develop  the  professional  spirit.3  In 
1826,  a  year  of  trial  teaching  (Probejahf)  was  required  of  all 
candidates,  and  in  1831  new  orders  were  issued  for  the  con- 
duct of  teachers'  examinations.  All  candidates  for  positions 
in  the  higher  schools,  whether  holders  of  doctor's  degrees 
from  universities  or  not,  were  obliged  to  take  examinations 
in  the  main  subjects  of  the  higher  school  bourse  and  in 
philosophy,  pedagogy  and  theology.  Distinguished  excellence 

1  See  Wiese,  Hoheres  Schulwesen,  I.,  p.  21. 

'Konigsberg,  1810;  Berlin,  1812;  Greifswald,  1820;  Breslau,  1812; 
Munster,  1825;  Bonn,  1819. 

"Herbart's  seminar  in  Konigsberg  was  officially  recognized  in  1810; 
Gedike's  seminar  in  Berlin  was  formally  taken  over  by  the  University  in 
1812;  the  seminar  in  Stettin,  founded  in  1804,  was  reorganized  in  1816; 
Breslau  began  pedagogical  work  in  1813;  and  in  1817  it  was  stated  that 
the  purpose  of  the  reorganized  seminar  in  Halle  was  "  the  training  of 
skilled  teachers  for  the  Gymnasien."  (Wiese,  Hoheres  Schulwcsen,  I.,  539.) 
7 


98  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

was  required  in  one  of  the  three  main  groups — (a)  Greek, 
Latin  and  German ;  (b)  mathematics  and  the  natural  sci- 
ences ;  (c)  history  and  geography — and  a  reasonable  knowl- 
edge of  the  other  two.  According  to  the  standing  obtained 
in  this  examination  candidates  were  licensed  to  teach  (after  a 
successful  trial  year)  in  the  higher,  middle  or  lower  grades  of 
the  higher  schools.  Promotion  was  strictly  dependent  upon 
scholarly  and  professional  attainments,  the  one  as  tested  by 
examination,  the  other  chiefly  by  skill  in  teaching. 

In  the  development  of  school  affairs  the  example  of  Prussia 
was  closely  followed  by  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse  and  the 
Prussia's  Example  °^ner  northern  states,  but  central  and  southern 
Followed  in  other  Germany  followed  their  own  devices.  In  Sax-> 
ony  the  leadership  of  the  great  cloister-schools, 
Schulpforta,  Grimma  and  Meissen,  was  generally  acknowl- 
edged, and  this  tended  distinctly  toward  a  one-sided  classical 
training,  and  that  mainly  philological.  In  Bavaria,  Freder- 
ick Thiersch  introduced  the  Saxon  plan  and  carried  out  re- 
forms which  were  in  most  respects  opposed  to  the  new 
humanism.  According  to  his  program,  which  was  published 
in  1829  and  officially  adopted  in  all  main  points  in  1830, 
Latin  was  given  16  hours  a  week  during  the  first  two  years, 
12  hours  a  week  during  the  next  four  years,  and  10,  9,  8  and 
6  hours  a  week  respectively  during  the  last  four  years  of  the 
course.  Greek  was  taught  throughout  the  last  eight  years 
with  a  total  of  51  hours.  Logic  and  philosophy,  German  and 
history,  were  to  be  taught  incidentally  in  connection  with  the 
classics.  For  mathematics  3  or  4  hours  a  week  were  con- 
sidered sufficient.  Wurtemberg  followed  much  the  same  line 
of  development.  Baden  was  considerably  more  liberal  and 
inclined  to  the  Prussian  plan,  but,  on  the  whole,  southern 
Germany  was  loath  to  abandon  the  old  mode  of  education. 
Undoubtedly  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits  did  much  to  main- 
tain the  supremacy  of  Latin  in  the  schools,  but  even  in  prot- 
estant  districts  no  reform  has  successfully  combated  the 
popular  faith  in  classical  scholarship. 

The  period  from  1820  to  1840  is  one  of  consolidation  and 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS     99 

organization  ;  it  is  not  a  period  of  progress  in  German  educa- 
tion, except  from  the  stand-point  of  practical  politics.     Dur- 
ing these  years  the  school  system  of  Prussia  was 
converted  into  a  mighty  political  force  and  made      '^^f 
obedient  to  the  will  of  the  state.     The  regu- 
lations concerning  the  governmental  administration  of  the 
schools,  the  preparation  and  certification  of  teachers,  and  the 
control  of  school  instruction  through  the  final  examinations, 
have  already   been   mentioned   as   the  work  of  Altenstein's 
ministry  under  the  guidance  of  Johannes  Schulze,  chief  of 
the  bureau  of  education.1     One  further  consideration  and  the 
review  of  the  period  will  be  complete. 

The  first  impulse  of  the  reformers  of  the  revolutionary 
period  was^to  make  Greek  the  centre  of  all  gymnasial  in- 
struction.    Even  Herbart,  who  had  little  sym- 
pathy with  the  roseate  views   of  the  idealists,     The  Place  of 

Greek. 

earnestly  advocated  the  claims  of  the  Greek 
language  and  literature  for  the  purpose  of  educative  instruc- 
tion. The  program  of  1816  gave  it  a  prominent  place,  but,  as 
Wolf  well  knew,  not  all  schools  were  prepared  to  teach  Greek 
to  the  extent  recommended,  nor  were  all  teachers  of  the  sub- 
ject new  humanists.  In  consequence  some  provision  had  to 
be  made  for  the  acceptance  of  equivalents.  Up  to  1824  it 
was  possible  to  graduate  from  the  Gymnasien  without  Greek. 
Substitution  was  then  made  permissible  only  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  provincial  school-boards,  and  in  1837  Greek  be-  / 
came  an  obligatory  study. 

At  first  sight  it  looks  as  if  the  victory  were  slowly  on  the 
side  of  the  reformers,  but  in  fact  it  was  their  defeat.     In  the 
early  20's  it  became  apparent   that  the  first 
care  of  the  administration  was  to  restore  the      l 


supremacy  of  Latin.     The  philological  seminars 

of  the  universities  were  ordered  to  give  more  attention  to 

Latin  composition.     Occasional  courses  in  Latin  were  given 

1  Varrentrapp,  Johannes  Schulze  und  das  hohere  Unterrichtswesen  t'n 
teiner  Zeit^  1889. 


100  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

by  the  Faculties  of  Law  and  Medicine,  thanks  to  a  little 
official  inspiration  from  the  ministry,  and  finally  the  require- 
ments of  the  final  examinations  as  announced  in  1834  showed 
precisely  where  the  schools  were  expected  to  stand.  The 
certificate  of  graduation  could  be  given  only  to  him  who 
could  write  Latin  without  grammatical  errors  and  in  a  style 
tolerably  free  from  Germanisms,  and  who  could  speak  the 
language  readily  enough  to  satisfy  the  examiners  thereby  of 
his  knowledge  of  the  other  subjects  of  the  course.  Latin 
was  not  the  only  object  of  official  test ;  but  as  the  examination 
in  other  studies,  Greek  included,  was  conducted  through  the 
Latin,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  no  candidate  would  fail  to  put 
the  stress  in  the  proper  place.  If  Greek  was  made  obligatory, 
Latin  was  absolutely  indispensable.  The  truth  is  it  was 
necessary  officially  to  bolster  up  the  study  of  Greek  to  keep  it 
from  disappearing  entirely  under  the  bureaucratic  zeal  for 
excellence  in  Latin. 

Another  innovation  of  this  period  which  shows  clearly 
enough  the  trend  of  official  thought  was  the  introduction  of 
philosophical  propaedeutics.  This  consisted 
principally  of  empirical  psychology  and  logic 
as  a  "  preparation  for  the  systematic  study  of 
the  true  philosophy."  But  what  of  the  true  philosophy  ? 
Some  inconsiderate  provincial  boards  raised  the  question  and 
were  laughed  at  for  their  pains.  The  true  philosophy,  of 
course,  is  the  Hegelian,  and  he  who  would  teach  in  the  higher 
schools  must  be  prepared  to  believe  in  it  as  religiously  as  in 
his  theology.  Philosophy  not  only  found  an  entrance  into 
the  schools  but  the  universities  were  constrained  to  make  it 
a  required  subject  for  degrees  and  similar  honours.  Theology, 
too,  became  a  formal  study  for  intending  teachers,  and  the  os- 
tensible purpose  of  the  eight  years'  reign  of  the  Police  Min- 
ister in  the  bureau  of  education  was  to  promote  the  inter- 
ests of  a  truly  religious  education  among  the  people  ! 

The  gymnasial  program  of  1837  is  the  embodiment  of  all 
that  had  gone  before  in  the  realm  of  internal  school  affairs. 
It  gives  us  the  first  all-round  view  of  what  the  Prussian  state 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS   101 


The  Program  of 
1837. 


considered  essential  in  the  training  of  its  future  leaders  in 
thought  and  action.  It  was  the  first  program  which  was  uni- 
versally adopted  in  all  Prussian  Gymnasien, 
and  its  adoption  marked  the  triumph  of  the 
Altenstein  Ministry  in  its  crusade  against  free- 
dom and  individual  initiative  in  education.  Uniformity  was 
thereby  attained  and  the  school  system  effectually  nation- 
alized.1 

GYMXASIAL  PROGRAM  OF  1837. 


G 

LASSK8 

VI. 

V. 

IV. 

m&. 

Hla. 

lib. 

na. 

16. 

la. 

Total. 

Latin  

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

8 

8 

86 

Greek      

« 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

42 

German  

4 

4 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

22 

French 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

12 

Religion                       

2 

VI 

« 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

18 

Mathematics..        .  . 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

33 

1 

1 

2 

2 

6 

Philosophy 

2 

2 

4 

History  and  Geography.  .  . 

3 

f, 

8 
2 

2 
2 

3 
2 

3 

2 

3 

3 

2 

2 

24 
10 

a 

9 

9 

6 

Writing 

s 

S 

1 

1 

Singing. 

fl 

9 

ft 

2 

2 

10 

Hebrew  (elective)  

(3) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(8) 

TotaL  

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

30(2) 

30(2) 

30/2) 

30(21 

A  new  era  in  the  history  of  Prussian  education  began  in 
1840  with  the  reign  of  Frederick  William  IV.  The  leaders 
of  the  preceding  generation  had  been  super- 
seded by  others  who  were  of  a  different  faith  ; 
Wolf,  Goethe,  Hegel,  and  Humboldt  were  all 
dead,  and  in  their  places  stood  men  who  were  almost  fanati- 
cally opposed  to  the  philosophy  and  world-views  which  had 
characterized  the  first  third  of  the  century.  Specialization 
was  the  watch-word  of  the  new  order.  In  philology,  history, 
philosophy  and  theology  scholars  were  coming  to  content 
themselves  with  a  thorough  knowledge  of  some  particular 


1  The  Circular- Rescript  von  24  October,  1837,  is  given  in  full  in  Wiese- 
Kiibler,  Verordnungen  und  Gesetze,  Pt.  I.,  pp.  53-65. 


102  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

branch  of  their  subject  rather  than  strive  for  a  comprehensive 
view  of  the  entire  field  ;  much  less,  therefore,  were  they  in- 
terested in  a  superficial  knowledge  of  the  world  in  general. 
Note  the  change  in  philology  from  Wolf's  general  science  of 
antiquities  :  Bopp  (1791-1867)  developed  comparative  gram- 
mar on  the  basis  of  the  Sanskrit ;  Dietz  (1794-1876)  was  the 
founder  of  Romance  philology ;  Ritschl  (1806-1876)  intro- 
duced his  students  to  a  study  of  the  Latin  inscriptions ;  and 
Lepsius  (1810-1884)  sought  his  materials  for  Egyptology  with 
a  spade.  In  history,  following  the  epoch-making  work  of 
Niebuhr  (1776-1831)  came  Eanke  (1795-1886),  who  led  the 
way  in  investigation  of  the  sources.  Hegel  (1770-1831)  was 
succeeded  by  Schopenhauer  (1788-1860)  and  Lotze  (1817-* 
1881),  and  a  new  field  was  opened  up  by  Fechner  (1801-1887) 
and  Wundt  (1832-)  in  psychology.  Even  the  old  theology 
found  opponents  in  Baur  and  the  Tubingen  school,  who  intro- 
duced the  higher  criticism  from  the  historical  stand-point. 
Jurisprudence  had  its  specialists  and  critics  in  von  Savigny 
and  Stahl.  But  the  most  significant  change  of  all  was  the 
tendency  in  science.  Muller  (1801-1858)  gave  a  new  impulse 
to  the  study  of  pathological  anatomy  by  the  introduction  of 
the  microscope  ;  Schultze  (1825-1874)  systematized  zoology  ; 
Liebig  (1803-1873)  made  a  new  chemistry,  and  Helmholtz 
(1821-1894)  a  new  physics.  In  short,  every  object  which  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  scholars  was  carefully  investigated 
and  set  off  into  specialties. 

The  immediate  effect  upon  the  schools  of  the  strictly  scien- 
tific methods  of  research  which  were  gradually  introduced 
after  1830  was  a  tendency  to  discredit  all  that 
had  before  been  attempted.  But  the  work 
of  the  Altenstein  Ministry  could  not  easily  be 
set  aside  ;  nevertheless  the  Prussian  Department  of  Education 
assiduously  strove  to  bring  unity  into  the  classical  schools  by 
emphasizing  still  further  the  study  of  Latin.1  The  idea  of 

1  Wiese  gives  an  official  summary  of  the  years  1864-1869  in  Dashohere 
Schulwesen  in  Preusscn,  II.,  pp.  1-32;  1869-1874,  in  III.,  pp.  1-60. 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS   103 

power  and  special  knowledge  thus  manifested  itself  in  the 
classical  schools  by  a  return  to  the  method  of  the  old  human- 
ists. The  ability  to  read,  write  and  speak  Latin  was  the 
chief  end  of  all  instruction.  A  gymnasial  program  was  issued 
in  1856  which  incorporated  many  of  the  desired  reforms.  In 
the  two  lower  classes  the  instruction  in  German  was  combined 
with  the  Latin,  to  which  two  hours  weekly  were  added,  and 
the  time  previously  given  to  the  natural  sciences  was  almost 
entirely  devoted  to  French  and  religion.  The  writing  of 
Latin  was  an  important  exercise  in  all  classes.  Greek  prose 
composition  was  included  in  the  final  examination,  from  which 
German  literature,  French,  the  natural  sciences  and  philos- 
ophy were  entirely  omitted.  Latin  was  the  main  part  of  the 
gymnasial  course  ;  everything  was  subsidiary  to  the  classics. 

There  were  forces  operative  in  German  life,  however,  which 
were  destined  in  time  to  overcome  the  extreme  leaning  to- 
ward a  classical  training.  The  rise  of  modern  Forcee  opposed 
science  and  the  accompanying  changes  in  the  to  classical 
industrial  world  demanded  a  hearing.  The  de- 
velopment of  rapid  transit,  the  discovery  of  easy  means  of 
communication  and  the  invention  of  labor-saving  devices 
tended  toward  the  growth  of  urban  population.  This  in  its 
turn  produced  unexpected  effects  upon  the  social  conditions 
of  the  country.  The  political  revolution  of  1848  was  out- 
wardly a  failure ;  but  the  industrial  and  social  revolution  which 
began  to  be  felt  in  Germany  in  the  30's,  and  which  grew 
steadily  despite  all  hinderances  during  the  succeeding  forty 
years,  finally  found  free  scope  in  the  re-established  German 
Empire.  So  completely  has  the  new  order  supplanted  the 
old  that  within  the  last  twenty-five  years  Germany  has  entered 
the  markets  of  the  world  and  become  a  dangerous  rival  for 
commercial  supremacy.  In  this  period  Germany  has  been 
transformed  from  a  mediaeval  agricultural  nation  into  a  high- 
ly developed  industrial  power. 

In  the  organization  of  the  school  system  little  thought  was 
given  to  the  practical  needs  of  the  people.  The  reformers 
were  intent  upon  securing  the  ideal  training  for  the  ideal 


104  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

citizen.     Enough  was  done,  they  apparently  believed,  when 

schools  were  provided  on  the  one  hand  for  the  common  people 

and  on  the  other  hand  for  those  who  were  to  be 

'"'schooif6*1  lexers  in  society.  But  TiW-schools  were  in 
existence  and  they  continued  to  exist.  Many 
of  the  old  city  Latin  schools  were  also  tolerated,  although  they 
could  not  maintain  the  standards  of  the  Gymnasien,  Here 
then  were  two  kinds  of  schools  outside  of  the  gymnasial  sys- 
tem and  sufficiently  in  disrepute  to  cater  to  the  needs  of  the 
new  industrial  classes. 

Up  to  1855  the  free  growth  of  these  schools  was  persistently 
and  perversely  checked  by  university  scholars  and  state  offi- 
cials. But  after  the  change  in  administration 
Recognition  ^ne  -^^-sch°°l  soon  received  full  recognition. 
By  ministerial  order  of  October  6,  1859,1  two 
classes  of  Realscliulen  were  instituted.  Schools  of  the  first- 
class  (Realsclmlen  I.  Ordnung}  were  permitted  to  give  a  full 
nine  years'  course  in  Latin  with  a  total  of  44  week-hours. 
French  was  allotted  34  week-hours  ;  German,  29  week-hours  ; 
geography  and  history,  30  week-hours  ;  mathematics,  47  week- 
hours — as  opposed  to  17,  20,  25  and  32  week-hours  respect- 
ively in  the  Gymnasium.  As  a  still  further  offset  for  Greek 
20  week-hours  in  English  and  over  30  week-hours  in  the 
sciences  were  added  to  the  Real-school  course. 

The  Realscliule  II.  Ordnung  was  left  largely  dependent 
upon  the  goodwill  of  local  communities.  It  might  teach 
Latin,  but  it  did  not  receive  official  recognition  unless  it  con- 
formed to  the  official  standard.  And  herein  was  an  especial 
cause  of  discontent.  Latin  was  an  indispensable  prerequisite 
for  admission  to  the  civil  service,  and  in  most  instances  it  was 
a  condition  of  entrance  to  the  higher  industrial  and  technical 
schools.  With  rapidly  increasing  industrial  demands  a  school 
was  needed  which  should  give  a  systematic  and  comprehensive 
training  in  modern  languages,  mathematics  and  the  natural 

1  The  text  of  the  order  is  given  in  Wiese-Kubler,  Verordnungen  und 
Gesctze,  Tt.  I,  pp.  70-84. 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  105 

sciences.  This  result  was  fully  attained  in  1882,1  when  the 
Prussian  government  gave  the  Realschule  I.  Ordnung  the 
title  of  Realgymnasium  and  elevated  the  burgher  school  to 
the  rank  of  Oberrealschule.  Graduates  of  these  schools  were 
also  given  certain  privileges  in  the  universities,  schools  of 
technology  and  the  civil  service. 

The  revision  of  the  higher-school  programs  in  1882  appar- 
ently left  little  to  be  desired.  In  a  way  peculiarly  German  the 
problems  of  secondary  education  were  worked 
out  to  a  logical  conclusion.  But  seeds  of  discon- 
tent  had  been  sown.  The  Real-schools  were 
popular — too  popular  for  their  own  best  interests — and  they 
increased  rapidly  in  number  and  in  the  attendance  of  pupils. 
Their  adherents  soon  began  to  press  for  additional  privileges 
and  thus  incur  the  enmity  of  the  Gymnasien.  The  classical 
schools  on  the  other  hand  had  been  strengthened  on  the  side 
of  modern  languages  and  the  natural  sciences  to  the  disad- 
vantage of  Latin — a  reform  most  displeasing  to  the  ultra- 
humanists.  The  outcome  was  the  famous  School  Conference 
of  December,  1890,  in  which  the  young  Emperor  took  so  prom- 
inent a  part  and  which  led  to  the  revised  programs  of  1892. 

The  last_act  in  the  educational  drama  presents  very  clearly 
the  underlying  motive  in  all  the  reforms  of  the  century.    The 
tendency  has  been  to  nationalize  the  school  sys-  Qerm&n  schools 
tern  and  to  make  it  the  principal  support  of  the     for  German 
state.     In  Prussia  the  state  government  is  mo- 
narchical ;  hence  the  upholding  of  the  crown  is  the  patriotic 
duty  of  the  schools.    Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  political 
aspects  of  this  principle,  it  certainly  conforms  to  the  ideas  of 
modern  German  statesmen  ;  it  is  the  natural  evolution  of  the 
nineteenth  century.     The  Emperor  stated  the  case  admirably  _ 
in  his  opening  address  to  the  Conference  :  "  The  main  trouble 
lies  in  the  fact  that  since  1870  the  philologists  have  sat   in 
their  Gymnasien  as  beati  possidentes,  laying  main  stress  up- 
on the  subject-matter,  upon  the  learning  and  the  knowing, 

1  See  Wiese-Kubler,  Verordnungen  und  Gesetze^'Pt.  1,  pp.  110-161. 


106  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

but  not  upon,  the  formation  of  character  and  the  needs  of  life. 
Less  emphasis  is  being  placed  upon  practice  (konneti)  than 
theory  (kennen),  a  fact  that  can  easily  be  verified  by  looking 
at  the  requirements  for  the  examinations.  Their  underlying 
principle  is  that  the  pupil  must,  first  of  all,  know  as  many 
things  as  possible.  Whether  this  knowledge  fits  for  life  or 
not  is  immaterial.  If  anyone  enters  into  a  discussion  with 
these  gentlemen  on  this  point  and  attempts  to  show  them 
that  a  young  man  ought  to  be  prepared,  to  some  extent  at 
least,  for  life  and  its  manifold  problems,  they  will  tell  him 
that  such  is  not  the  function  of  the  school,  its  principal  aim 
being  the  discipline  or  gymnastic  of  the  mind,  and  that  if 
this  gymnastic  were  properly  conducted  the  young  man 
would  be  capable  of  doing  all  that  is  necessary  in  life.  I  am 
of  the  opinion  that  we  can  no  longer  be  guided  by  this  doc- 
trine. 

"To  return  to  schools  in  general  and  to  the  Gymnasium  in 
particular — I  will  say  that  I  am  not  ignorant  of  the  fact  that 
in  many  circles  I  am  looked  upon  as  a  fanatical  opponent  of 
the  Gymnasium,  and  that  I  have  therefore  often  been  played 
as  a  trump-card  in  favour  of  other  schools.  Gentlemen,  this 
is  a  misapprehension.  Whoever  has  been  a  pupil  of  a  Gym- 
nasium himself,  and  has  looked  behind  the  scenes,  knows 
where  the  wrong  lies.  First  of  all,  a  national  basis  is  wanting. 
The  foundation  of  our  Gymnasium  must  be  German.  It  is 
our  duty  to  educate  men  to  become  young  Germans,  and  not 
young  Greeks  and  Eomans.  We  must  relinquish  the  basis 
which  has  been  the  rule  for  centuries,  the  old  monastic  edu- 
cation of  the  Middle  Ages,  when  Latin  and  a  little  Greek 
(ein  bissclien  Griechisch)  were  most  important.  These  are 
no  longer  our  standard ;  we  must  make  German  the  basis, 
and  German  composition  must  be  made  the  centre  around 
which  everything  else  revolves."1 

This  is  the  aim  of  secondary  education  in  Germany.  There 
may  be  a  difference  of  opinion  on  how  best  to  attain  it,  but 

1  Educational  Review,  I.,  pp.  202-203. 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS   107 

on  the  whole  the  Emperor  speaks  for  the  German  people. 
The  problem  of  the  future  is  the  preservation  of  the  national 
culture  and  the  satisfaction  of  the  practical  needs  of  an  in- 
dustrial people. 

The  purpose  of  this  rapid  sketch  of  the  history  of  secondary 
education  in  Germany  has  been  attained  if  it  has  demonstrate-"' 
the  proposition  that  the  German  school  system 

V    •  •      4. -4.    4.-  u    I     1,  Conclusion. 

is  a  living,  progressive  institution  that  has 
changed  from  age  to  age  in  response  to  the  changing  ideals  of 
successive  periods.  At  no  time  has  it  been  a  finished  product 
which  could  be  studied  apart  from  the  political,  social,  indus- 
trial and  spiritual  conditions  of  the  people  by  whom  it  has 
been  supported  and  for  whom  it  still  exists.  It  is  the  natural 
evolution  of  forces  inherent  in  the  German  life ;  it  is  the  re- 
sult of  a  process  of  adaptation  to  German  environment ;  it  is 
an  educational  product  peculiar  to  the  Fatherland. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — Wiese,  Das  hohere  Schulwesen  in  Preussen, 
3  vols.,  Berlin,  1864-1873;  Wiese-Kiibler,  Verordnungen  und  Geseizefur 
die  hohere  Schulen  in  Preussen,  3d  ed.,  2  vols  ,  Berlin,  1886-1888 ;  RSnne, 
Das  Unterrichts-Wesen  des  Preussischen  Staates,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1855; 
Paulsen,  Geschichte  des  Gelehrten  Unterrichts,  Leipzig,  1885  (a  new 
and  enlarged  edition  of  this  excellent  work  has  been  recently  issued)  ; 
Ziegler,  Geschichte  der  Pddagogik  mit  besonderer  Riicksicht  aufdas  hohere 
Unterrichtswesen,  Vol.  I.,  Pt.  I.,  of  Baumeister's  Handbuch  der  Erzieh- 
ungs  und  Unterrichtslehre,  Munich,  1895  ;  Rethwisch,  Deutschlands  hoh- 
eres  Schulwesen  im  neunzehnten  Jahrhundert,  Berlin,  1893  ;  Centralblatt 
fur  die  gesammte  Unterrichts-  Verwaltung  in  Preussen  ;  and  the  Ency- 
clopedias of  Schmid  and  Rein.  See  Bibliography,  p.  455,  Nos.  la,  5a,  6a> 
6d,  7,  12. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  PRUSSIAN   SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

IT  will  be  apparent  from  the  foregoing  sketch  of  the  his- 
tory of  education  in  Germany  that  no  absolute  uniformity  in 
the  school  systems  of  the  various  states  is  to  be 
expected.  There  are  marked  political  and  re- 
ligious differences  between  the  north  and  the 
south  ;  even  the  racial  characteristics  of  the  people  are  not 
the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  Empire.  But  the  unquestioned 
supremacy  of  Prussia  in  imperial  politics  assures  her  also  the 
first  place  in  educational  affairs.  However  much  the  smaller 
states  may  object  to  Prussian  leadership  it  remains  a  fact 
that  the  German  Empire  is  little  more  than  Prussia  en- 
larged. In  considering  the  German  school  systems,  there- 
fore, I  shall  take  the  Prussian  system  as  the  standard  and 
refer  to  the  other  states  only  as  the  differentiation  makes  it 
imperative. 

In  Germany,  as  in  the  United  States,  educational  affairs 
are  directed  by  state  officials    in   accordance  with  govern- 
mental policy,  custom  and  laws.     The  school- 

lftWS  °f    8Ome  °f   the   StateS   haVG   b?en   c°dified> 

but  in  general  this  has  been  found  impossible 
in  the  larger  states  owing  to  the  variety  of  interests  and  the 
strength  of  tradition.  In  Prussia,  for  example,  many  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  secure  the  passage  of  some  general 
measure  which  would  at  least  simplify  existing  customs,  but 
without  success.  Either  the  proposition  has  been  too  bureau- 
cratic to  suit  the  citizen  party,  too  ecclesiastical  to  please  the 
liberals,  or  too  radical  to  secure  the  vote  of  the  catholics. 

108 


THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  109 

The  foreigner  who  would  familiarize  himself  with  the  Prus- 
sian school  system  finds  here  the  first  serious  obstacle ;  vol- 
umes of  ministerial  rescripts  and  official  instructions  are 
placed  at  his  disposal,  but  there  is  no  knowing  how  much  of 
it  all  is  a  dead  letter.  And  even  a  German  is  not  quite  sure 
till  he  has  the  minister's  word  for  it. 

In  Prussia,  as  in  most  of  the  German  states,  the  control  of 
the  schools  is  exercised  through  governmental  orders  and  in- 
structions that  proceed  from  the  Department  of  Education. 
The  government,  however,  is  not  absolute  in  its  powers. 
Limits  are  set  by  the  constitution  of  the  Prussian  state. 

Frederick  William  I.  first  claimed  the  right  of  putting  the   / 
schools  under  state  control,  and  in  1794  Frederick  William 
II.  issued  the  Allgemeine  Landrecht,  the  char- 
ter upon  which  are  based  all  school  ordinances    The  Basis  of 
and  regulations.     Its  most  important   articles 
are  as  follows  : 

1.  Schools  and  universities  are  state  institutions  charged 
with  the  instruction  of  youth  in    useful    information  and 
scientific  knowledge. 

2.  Such  institutions  may  be  founded  only  with  the  knowl- 
edge and  consent  of  the  state. 

3.  All  public  schools  and  educational  institutions  are  under 
the  supervision  of  the  state  and  are  at  all  times  subject  to  its 
examination  and  inspection. 

4.  No  one  shall  be  denied  admission  to  the  public  schools 
on  account  of  his  religious  belief. 

5.  Public-school  children  cannot  be  compelled  to  attend 
religious  instruction  at  variance  with  their  own  creed. 

6.  Public  schools  designed  to  give  instruction  in  the  higher 
arts  and  sciences  enjoy  all  the  rights  of  corporate  bodies. 

7.  These  rights  are  vested  in  governmental  boards  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  existing  school   regulations  of  the  dis- 
trict. 

8.  Boards  appointed  by  the  state  are  charged  with  the  im- 
mediate direction  and  supervision  of  schools. 

9.  Where  the  appointment  of  teachers  does  not  rest  with 


110  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

certain  persons  or   corporations  because  of  foundations  or 
special  privileges  it  belongs  to  the  state. 

10.  Even  where  the  immediate  supervision  of  such  schools 
or  the  appointment  of  teachers  is  left  to  certain  private  per- 
sons or  corporations  new  teachers  cannot  be  appointed,  nor 
can  any  important  change  in  organization  or  methods  of  in- 
struction be  made,  without  the  knowledge  and  consent  of  the 
provincial  school-boards. 

11.  Only  persons  of  sufficient  knowledge,  good  morals  and 
sound  judgment  can  be  chosen  for  supervising  officers. 

12.  Overseers  must  earnestly  seek  to  dissuade  young  peo- 
ple from  attempting  intellectual  work  beyond  their  ability. 

13.  On  the  other  hand  they  should  encourage  and  sup- 
port students  of  superior  ability  in  the  prosecution  of  their 
studies. 

14.  No  native   pupil  shall   be  dismissed  from   a    public 
school  without  a  certificate  signed  by  the  teachers  and  school 
authorities  showing  the  nature  of  his  school  work  and  his 
moral  deportment. 

15.  Such  a  certificate  shall  be  deemed  an  essential  pre- 
requisite for  admission  to  the  university. 

16.  The  selection  of  the  school  which  the  child  shall  at- 
tend belongs  primarily  to  the  father,  who  is,  however,  to 
the  extent  of  his  ability,  specially  charged  with  the  duty  of 
securing  for  his  child  a  religious  training  and  a  practical 
education. 

17.  Teachers  of  Oymnasien  and  other  higher  schools  are 
considered  officers  of  the  state. 

The  Allgemeine  Landreclit  asserted,  in  vigorous  and  une- 
quivocal terms,  the  authority  of  the  state  in  all  educational 
affairs.  It  was  the  first-fruits  of  the  civic  ideal ;  it  meant  the 
complete  removal  of  the  schools  from  clerical  control  and  the 
restriction  of  private  venture.  The  traditions  of  a  thousand 
years  were  brushed  aside  with  a  stroke  of  the  pen,  but  general 
acceptance  of  the  spirit  of  the  law  was  long  delayed.  It  was 
the  work  of  half  a  century  to  harmonize  these  principles  with 
public  opinion. 


THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  111 

In  1850  it  was  decreed  that  "All  religious  organizations 
shall  order  and  administer  their  own  affairs  independently 
[subject,  of  course,  to  the  general  laws  of  the 
state  —  a  point  made  clear  by  special  enactment 
in  1873],  and  shall  remain  in  enjoyment  of  all 
their  educational  and  charitable  enterprises  and  foundations," 
and  further  that  "  Everyone  is  free  to  give  instruction  and 
to  conduct  educational  institutions  provided  he  first  proves 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  proper  state  officials  that  he  has  the  /" 
requisite  moral,  scientific  and  professional  qualifications." 
So  much  is  conceded  to  private  venture,  but  at  the  same  time 
it  was  affirmed  that  "  Sufficient  provision  for  the  education  ^ 
of  the  young  shall  be  made  by  means  of  public  schools/'  and 
that  "  All  educational  institutions,  public  and  private,  shall 
be  under  the  supervision  of  authorities  appointed  by  the 
state." 

The  national  ideal  was  still  further  realized  by  the  school 
laws  ofJL872,  which  provided  that  all  private  schools  should 
be  subject  to  regular  and  systematic  inspection  by  state  offi- 
cials, the  same  as  public  schools.  In  effect  the  present  regula- 
tions permit  any  licensed  teacher  to  conduct  a  school,  but  the 
government  through  its  inspectors  will  see  to  it  that  every 
such  school  maintains  at  least  the  minimum  standard  of  the 
corresponding  grade  of  public  schools.  The  private  or  sec- 
tarian school  may  surpass  the  public  school,  but  it  dare  not 
fall  behind.  Thus  in  all  essential  respects  it  is  a  part  of  the 
public  school  system  save  that  it  draws  no  support  from  pub- 
lic funds. 

The  central  authority  in  Prussia,  charged  with  the  admin- 
istration of  the  school  system  in  accordance  with  these  prin- 
ciples, is  the  Minister  for  Religious,  Educational 
and  Medicinal  Affairs  (Minister  der  geistlichen,    '    ™ 


Unterrichts-  und  Medicinal-  Angelegenheiten). 
He  is  a  cabinet  officer  and  responsible  only  to  the  crown  ; 
yet  any  deviation  from  the  principles  above  mentioned  would 
surely  occasion  factional  controversy,  if  not  parliamentary 
inquiry.  The  rule  of  precedent  is  binding.  More  than  one 


112  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

minister  has  lost  his  place  for  attempting  reforms  too  much  at 
variance  with  established  customs.  As  the  court  of  last  re- 
sort, the  minister's  chief  function  is  to  hear  and  determine 
appeals  from  the  decisions  of  lower  departmental  officers. 
The  rescripts  and  decrees  of  the  Minister  of  Education  thus 
become  the  basis  of  school  administration  in  all  parts  of  the 
kingdom. 

The  Minister  of  Education  is  dependent  on  the  crown  for 
his  appointment  and  retention  in  office.     He  is  usually  a  jurist 
by  profession,   a  politician  and  diplomat  by 
1  Motion.1  °    f orce  °f  circumstances.     He  represents  his  de- 
partment in  the  Prussian  parliament,  and  in- 
troduces bills  pertaining  to  its  interests,  for  the  enactment  of 
which  he  is  held,  in  a  great  measure,  responsible  ;  in  fact  the 
tenure  of  his  office  is  often  conditioned  upon 

The  Minister. 

the  passage  of  a  bill  on  which  the  government 
has  set  its  heart.  His  individual  obligations  are  numerous. 
He  has  charge  of  the  financial  affairs  of  his  own  department ; 
appoints,  with  the  approval  of  the  crown,  counsellors  and 
other  officials  ;  confers  titles  upon  teachers,  ratifies  their  ap- 
pointments and  makes  promotions,  except  where  this  right 
has  been  granted  to  other  authorities  ;  and  he  is  the  court  of 
final  appeal  in  all  matters  connected  with  this  branch  of  gov- 
ernment. 

The  duties  of  the  department  as  a  whole  cover  a  broad 
field.  It  controls  examination  requirements  and  the  privi- 
leges dependent  upon  them  in  all  schools  ;  determines  the 
course  of  study  ;  regulates  tuition  fees  ;  fixes  the  salaries  and 
has  charge  of  the  pensioning  and  retiring  of  teachers. 

Properly  speaking,  Prussia  has  no  Minister  of  Education. 
The  ministry  has  three  general  departments,  one  each  for 
educational,  ecclesiastical  and  medicinal  affairs. 
The  Department  of  Education  is  presided  over 
by  an  under  secretary  and  two  chief  assistants  (Direktoreri), 
and  on  these  officers,  assisted  by  nineteen  (in  1897)  special 
counsellors  (  Vortragende  Rate),  devolves  the  general  adminis- 
tration of  the  school  system.  And  within  the  department 


THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  113 

itself  there  are  two  main  subdivisions.  One  has  charge  of 
the  common  schools,  normal  schools,  high  schools  for  girls, 
and  institutions  for  the  education  of  defective  children  ;  the 
other  division  has  the  supervision  of  higher  education,  chiefly 
in  the  universities  and  secondary  schools. 

The  immediate  administration  and  supervision  of  second- 
ary-school affairs    is  intrusted    to  provincial  school-boards 
(Provincial-Schulcollegien),    thirteen    in  num- 
ber, one  in  each  of  the  provinces  of  East  Prus-    school-boards 
sia,   West    Prussia,   Brandenburg,  Pomerania, 
Posen,  Silesia,  Saxony,  Schleswig-Holstein,  Hanover,  West- 
phalia, Hesse-Nassau,  the  Ehine  Province,  and  the  Hohen- 
zollern  Territory. 

The  President  of  the  province  ( Ober-Prasident)  is  chair- 
man ex  officio  of  the  board.  Since  he  is  a  jurist  and  usually 
unfamiliar  with  pedagogical  affairs,  his  place  is 

,,      ,    ,  ..    ,,        j.    ,    .    ,       Organization. 

generally  taken  by  the  governor  of  the  district 
in  which  the  provincial  capital  is  located.  The  board  is 
composed  of  from  three  to  five  trained  inspectors,  who  are 
selected  by  the  minister  from  a  long  list  of  prominent  prin- 
cipals of  secondary  schools.  They  receive  their  appoint- 
ment from  the  crown  and  hold  office  till  retired  in  regular 
order.  The  senior  member,  who  is  chief  administrative 
officer,  generally  directs  gymnasial  affairs,  a  second  member 
has  oversight  of  the  Realschulen,  and  a  third  of  the  Volks- 
schulen. 

According  to  the  instructions  of  1817  the  duties  of  the 
provincial  board  are  prescribed  as  follows  : 

1.  The  supervision  of  all  pedagogical  matters        Duties 
appertaining  to  educational  institutions. 

2.  Revision  of  plans  and  ordinances  of  schools  and  educa- 
tional institutions. 

3.  Examination  of  new  regulations,  and  the   revision  of 
those  already  in  force  (including   disciplinary  laws,  etc.)  ; 
also  giving  advice  for  rectifying  manifest  abuses  and  supply- 
ing apparent  needs. 

4.  Examination  of  the  text-books  in  use,  and,  with  the 
8 


114  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

consent  of  the  ministry,  the  discontinuation  of  unsuitable 
ones  and  introduction  of  others. 

5.  The  compilation  of   new  text-books,  which,   however, 
cannot  be  printed  without  the  consent  of  the  minister. 

6.  Regulations  for   conducting  the  leaving   examinations 
(Maturitatsprufung)  and  revision  of  the  reports  of  the  same. 

7.  Inspection,    revision,   and    direction    of    those    higher 
schools  which  admit  to  the  university. 

8.  Appointment,  dismissal,  suspension,  and  discipline  of 
higher-school  teachers  (not  directors). 

The  provincial  school-boards  are  required  to  send  to  the 
Minister  of  Education  once  in  three  years  a  full  report  of 
their  administration.  They  must  make  also  an  annual  re- 
port of  the  higher  schools,  giving  lists  of  graduates  with  their 
chosen  occupations,  the  record  of  school  attendance,  the 
financial  conditions  of  the  various  schools,  etc.  A  semi- 
annual report  concerning  trial  teachers,  their  location,  pro- 
ficiency and  prospective  movements,  is  also  required.  Copies 
of  all  important  decisions  must  be  immediately  sent  to  de- 
partmental head-quarters.  In  short  the  provincial  boards  are 
expected  to  keep  the  minister  fully  informed  of  the  state  of 
school  affairs  throughout  the  provinces. 

The  provincial  school-board,  it  will  be  seen,  does  not  ex- 
amine and  certificate  teachers.     In  order  to  avoid  too  great 
centralization  and  to  place  an  effectual  check 
on  favouritism,  that  responsible  duty  is  assigned 
to  a  special  body  of  experts — the  WissenscJiaft- 
liche  Priif ungs- Commission  ;  and,  further,  in  order  that  this 
examination  commission  may  be  in  closest  touch  with  the 
latest  scientific  research  and  best  scholarship  of  the  times,  its 
members  are  selected  from  the  faculties  of  the  state  uni- 
versities.    Occasionally,  however,  it  happens  that  a  promi- 
nent director  of  a  secondary  school,  or  a  provincial  school 
inspector,  is  chosen  to  represent  some  subject  of  which  he  is 
a  recognized  master.     The  duty  of  this  commission  is  to  pass 
upon  the  scholarship  of  the  candidates  for  teachers'  positions 
in  the  secondary  schools  ;  other  means, Vas"  will  be  seen  later 


THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  115 

on,  are  taken  to  test  the  applicants'  practical  ability  to  teach. 
The  mere  fact  that  leave  to  teach  in  the  Prussian  secondary 
schools  depends  upon  the  approval  of  two  distinct  authorities, 
one  representing  scholarly  attainments,  the  other  professional 
skill,  places  the  Prussian  teacher  at  once  in  the  front  rank  of 
his  profession. 

The  examination  commission  has  some  ten  to  twenty  mem- 
bers, one  or  more  members  for  each  subject  in  which  a  can- 
didate may  be  examined.     These  members  are 
appointed  by  the  Minister  of  Education  for  a 
term  of  one  year.     The  seat  of  the  commission  is  always  a 
university  town.     East  and  West  Prussia  have  but  one  com- 
mission, Konigsberg ;  Silesia  and  Posen  also  unite  in  Bres- 
lau. 

Prussian  law  requires  that  religion  be  taught  in  all  schools  ; 
it  provides,  too,  that  each  communion  not  only  shall  have 
the  right  to  conduct  schools  of  its  own  under  the  general  laws 
of  the  state,  but  also  shall  be  privileged  to  inspect  the  re- 
ligious instruction  in  the  public  schools.  The  General  Su-  / 
perintendent  of  the  Evangelical  Church  in  each  province  is 
specially  charged  with  the  duty  of  visiting  each  secondary 
school  at  least  once  in  six  years  and  reporting  to  the  pro- 
vincial school-board  on  the  religious  conditions  of  the  schools 
visited,  the  character  of  the  work  done  and  changes  that 
seem  to  be  desirable. 

A  similar  privilege  is  granted  the  Catholic  Bishops,  who  are 
also  expected  to  report  upon  their  findings.  It  should  be 
understood,  however,  that  these  clerical  in- 

'  Supervision  of 

spectors  have  no  right  to  attend  other  classes       Religious 
than  those  in  which  their  own  religious  faith  is        Affaire, 
taught.     Catholics,  for  example,  may  not  visit  classes  even 
in  religion  taught  by  evangelical  masters,  much  less  classes 
in  other  subjects  of  the  school  course.     As  a  matter  of  fact 
this  office,  though  highly  prized  by  the  church  for  the  sake 
of  its  privileges  in  case  of  emergency,  is  becoming  more  and 
more  formal  with  each  decade.     To-day  its  chief  function  is 
to  approve  of  suitable  text-books  for  religious  instruction 


116  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

and  to  advise  with  the  provincial  board  on  minor  changes  in 
the  course  of  study. 

Secondary  schools  under  royal  patronage  are,  as  a  rule,  ex- 
clusively in  charge  of  the  provincial  school-boards.  But  for 
some  years  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  dimin- 
4.  Local  school  ^  ftlQ  number  of  these  university  preparatory 
schools  with  a  view  to  the  diminution  of  the 
"  educated  proletariat,"  as  Bismarck  called  that  large  class  in 
Germany  who,  though  well-educated,  are  nevertheless  unable 
to  turn  their  knowledge  to  any  practical  account.  This 
has  touched  local  pride  and  in  many  cases  has  actually  proved 
a  stimulus  to  municipal  ambition.  The  result  has  been  the 
establishment  within  the  last  few  years  of  many  schools  by 
cities  and  local  organizations.  This  method  of  establishing 
schools  gives  rise  to  what  are  known  as  local  school-boards 
which  exercise  more  or  less  authority  in  their  regulation — that 
is,  when  the  school  is  wholly  supported  at  municipal  expense, 
the  local  board  assumes  control  of  all  matters  externa  pertain- 
ing to  the  school ;  where  the  community  merely  assists  in 
the  maintenance  of  a  public  school  the  local  officers  then  ex- 
ercise joint  rights  of  administration  with  the  officers  of  the 
government.  But  in  all  internal  regulations  the  state  has 
exclusive  power. 

The  membership  of  local  boards  (Schuldeputatiori)  varies. 
It  usually  consists  of  a  standing  committee  of  one  to  three 

^_     .  members  of  the  city  council,  called  the  Maqis- 

Orgamzation.  •      i    j«  i  / 

trat,  including  the  mayor  (a  government  ap- 
pointee), a  like  number  of  elective  councilmen,  and  the  same 
number  of  citizens  elected  for  a  long  term  of  years.  In  some 
cities,  however,  the  Magistrat  assumes  full  charge  of  local 
secondary-school  affairs  ;  sometimes,  as  in  Berlin,  Stettin, 
Magdeburg,  Breslau  and  Dantzic,  they  choose  an  advisory 
member  as  inspector  of  schools,  a  city  superintendent  (Stadt- 
schulrat)  who  is  paid  for  his  services. 

Other  schools  are  those  under  private  patronage,  whether 
founded  by  persons  of  wealth,  by  philanthropic  associations, 
or  by  the  church.  To  the  patrons  of  such  institutions  certain 


THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  117 

rights  and  privileges  are  granted  by  royal  charter.  These  are 
often  .seriously  at  variance  with  modern  usage,  but  in  a  coun- 
try so  dependent  on  tradition  as  Germany  custom  prevails. 
The  higher  schools,  being  for  the  most  part  of  more  recent 
foundation,  suffer  less  in  this  respect  than  do  the  elementary 
schools,  where  patrons,  in  some  instances,  have  not  only  the 
right  of  nominating  teachers  and  modifying  the  course  of 
study,  but  even  of  setting  the  school  hours  before  eight  in  the 
morning  and  after  four  in  the  afternoon,  in  order  that  the 
children  may  labour  during  the  day  in  the  interests  of  their 
landlords. 

The  powers  of  local  school-boards,  and  of  trustees  of  most 
schools  under  special  endowment,  are  limited  principally  to 
the  choice  of  the  kind  of  school  they  will  have, 
the  nomination  of  teachers,  and  the  supervision 
and  direction  of  certain  external  affairs,  such 
as  the  managing  of  school  property,  looking  after  the  order 
and  equipment  of  school  premises  and  the  necessary  furnish- 
ings and  repairs,  the  drawing  up  of  the  school  estimate,  the 
regulation  of  tuition  fees,  free  scholarships,  and  other  matters 
involving  financial  obligations,  and  representing  the  town  at 
the  annual  examinations  and  school  celebrations. 

State  schools  are  in  no  wise  beholden  to  local  authorities. 
They  look  directly  to  the  provincial  school-boards,  to  the 
minister,  or  to  the  crown.  The  city  schools,  too,  when  once 
in  operation,  are  independent  of  local  control  or  influence  in 
all  matters  pertaining  to  their  internal  affairs.  The  local 
school-board  may  found  a  school,  provide  books  and  appara- 
tus, adopt  a  schedule  of  salaries  (which  must  be  at  least  as 
good  as  the  state  schedule),  and  select  a  director  and  teachers 
(but  only  from  the  approved  official  list) — all  with  the  knowl- 
edge and  consent  of  the  state  authorities.  But  here  its  priv- 
ileges end.  The  city  may  not  inspect  the  school  work,  may 
not  cut  down  appropriations,  may  not  effect  any  change  in 
the  curriculum  nor  compel  the  introduction  of  a  single  text- 
book ;  in  short  the  chief  privileges  of  local  boards  of  educa- 
tion in  respect  to  established  city  schools  are  to  nominate 


118  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

teachers  and  pay  the  bills.  And  these  claims  do  not  cease 
with  the  teacher's  retirement  from  active  work.  The  state 
pensions  its  superannuated  teachers  ;  the  city  cannot  do  less. 
Nor  can  a  city  alter  its  contract  to  the  disadvantage  of  any 
teacher  or  employee.  It  must  perform  all  its  obligations  to 
the  letter  ;  should  it  fail,  the  state  will  step  in  and  raise  the 
necessary  funds  by  special  assessment  of  city  property. 

Private  schools  exist  to  supply  a  temporary  lack  of  educa- 
tional facilities.     The  state  will  not  consent  to  the  establish- 
ment of  such  schools  where  the  public  schools 

suffice-  Thev  must  compty  with  a11  the  resu- 

lations  of  the  state  in  regard  to  equipment  and 
the  conduct  of  the  work.  The  course  of  study,  the  methods 
employed  and  the  teachers  must  all  be  approved  by  the  pro- 
vincial school-board,  to  whom  regular  reports  must  be  made. 
A  provincial  school  inspector  likewise  conducts  the  leaving 
examinations  in  case  special  privileges  are  attached,  as  for  ex- 
ample the  right  of  one-year  voluntary  service  in  the  army. 

The  chief  responsibility  in  the  administration  of  second- 
ary-school affairs,  it  will  be  seen,  rests  with  the  members 
of  the  provincial  school-board.  The  central  authority,  the 
Ministerium,  formulates  plans  and  inaugurates  reforms,  but 
even  in  such  matters  the  provincial  school  inspectors  usually 
have  a  voice.  They  are  in  daily  communication  with  the 
actual  work  of  the  schools  and  test  annually  the  attain- 
ments of  the  pupils.  They  know,  therefore,  at  first  hand 
the  particular  and  most  urgent  needs  of  the  schools,  and 
are  qualified  to  advise  the  ministry  from  facts  of  which  they 
are  personally  cognizant.  Furthermore,  as  will  be  explained 
in  a  later  chapter,  the  provincial  inspectors  are  indirectly 
responsible  for  the  immediate  conduct  of  the  schools.  With 
them  rest  the  appointment  of  all  teachers,  the  transfer  of 
teachers  from  one  school  to  another  and  the  power  to  effect 
changes  that  will  tend  to  make  the  schools  individually  more 
efficient.  Americans  are  familiar  with  the  possibilities  for 
good  inherent  in  the  office  of  superintendent  of  city  schools  ; 
the  Prussian  school  inspectors  are  really  "  superintendents  " 


THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  119 

with  greatly  increased  powers.  They  are  picked  men,  chosen 
especially  with  a  view  to  the  importance  of  their  office  and 
the  peculiar  qualifications  demanded  by  it.  The  provincial 
school-boards  are,  in  my  opinion,  the  main-stay  of  the  Prus- 
sian school  system. 

One  often  hears  it  said — indeed,  it  has  been  half -apologeti- 
cally remarked  to  me  by  a  high  official  in  the  Prussian  Edu- 
cational Department — that  Prussia  can  never 
have  a  well-organized  school  system.  Her  ter- 
ritory  is  unusually  diversified,  ranging  from  the 
low  sandy  dunes  of  the  north  to  the  mountains  of  the  south  ; 
the  east  is  distinctively  agricultural,  the  west  industrial  and 
commercial ;  some  provinces  are  protestant,  others  mainly 
catholic.  With  such  varied  interests  there  is  small  chance  of 
a  school  system  strictly  uniform  in  all  its  parts.  Saxony  and 
some  of  the  other  smaller  states  are  pointed  to  with  pride  as 
being  so  homogeneous  that  one  method  of  administration 
serves  all  sections.  It  is  true  that  the  schools  of  the  smaller 
states  are  governed  directly  from  the  capital,  the  inspectors 
belong  to  the  ministry  and  the  entire  administration  is  beauti- 
fully centralized.  But,  I  think,  the  average  American  will 
agree  with  me  that  it  is  fortunate  for  the  cause  of  education 
in  Prussia  that  centralization  cannot  be  carried  to  the  extreme. 
The  provincial  school-boards,  as  mediators  between  the  schools 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  ministry  on  the  other,  perform  a 
function  of  inestimable  value  for  the  well-being  of  the  Prus- 
sian state  and  for  general  educational  progress  in  the  Empire. 

The  higher  schools  of  the  smaller  German  states  are  con- 
trolled by  a  central  board,  usually  a  bureau  of  some  state  de- 
partment, presided  over  by  a  minister  of  the 

'/  -,-,-  In  Other  States. 

crown.  Much  the  same  conditions  obtain  as 
in  a  Prussian  province,  and  the  central  educational  depart- 
ment is  similar  in  function  to  the  provincial  board  of  Prussia. 
There  is,  however,  this  important  distinction  :  the  smaller  the 
state  the  greater  the  power  of  the  government  for  good  or 
ill ;  the  larger  the  state  the  more  chance  for  local  influence. 
The  distinctive  peculiarity  of  the  Prussian  system  is  its  semi- 


120  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

independent  provincial  boards,  certain  members  of  which  are 
exclusively  concerned  with  the  management  of  secondary 
schools.  They  maintain  the  balance  between  extreme  cen- 
tralization and  local  option.  The  provincial  inspector  of 
schools  is  the  very  heart  of  the  Prussian  higher-school  system. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — Wiese,  Das  hohere  Schulwesen  in  Preussen  ; 
Wiese-Kiibler,  Gesetze  und  Verordnungen  ;  Baumeister's  Handbuch  der 
Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichtslehre,  Vol.  I.,  Ft.  II.— Die  Einrichtung  und 
Verwaltung  des  hoheren  Schulwesens  in  Preussen,  u.  s.  w.;  Mushacke's 
Schulkalendar — Statistisches  Jahrbuch  der  hoheren  Schulen  und  heilpdda- 
gogischen  Anstalten  Deutschlands.  See  Bibliography,  p.  455,  Nos.  2,  3, 
4, 11,  12, 19,  20,  24,  25,  26. 


;.w. 

^ 

^%tt^      CHAPTER  VI 

THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OF  PRUSSIA 

GERMANY  is  nothing  if  not  military.     The  school  system 
is  pervaded  by  the  military  spirit ;  many  of  the  teachers  are 
reserve  officers,  most  of  the  pupils  hope  to  be, 
and  all  know  that  army  service  awaits  them  at 

»  opirit. 

the  end  of  the  school  days.  The  really  imporr 
tant  problem  for  the  school-boy's  consideration  is  whether  he 
shall  serve  for  two  years  as  an  ordinary  conscript  living  in 
the  barracks,  a  servant  to  some  superior,  or  whether  he  shall 
serve  but  one  year,  living  where  he  will  and  always  standing 
in  line  of  promotion.  This  latter  privilege  is  a  prize  most 
alluring  to  the  German  youth  ;  it  can  be  won  only  by  suc- 
cessfully completing  a  six-year  course  in  an  approved  higher 
school  (Holiere  Sclmle). 

There  is  perhaps  no  better  criterion  of  what  constitutes 
a  higher  school  from  the  German  point  of  view  than  the  re- 
quirements for  the  one-year  volunteer  service 
in  the  army.  This  school  differs  from  the  ele- 
mentary school  in  that  it  offers  instruction  be- 
yond the  necessities  of  life  ;  it  differs  from  the  technical 
school  in  that  its  aim  is  a  liberal  education  ;  and  it  prepares 
for  the  university  and  institutions  of  scientific  research.  An 
approved  higher  school  must  teach  at  least  two  foreign  lan- 
guages, geography,  history,  German  literature,  mathematics 
and  natural  science. 

Technological  and  trade  schools  (Gewerbe  und  Fachschu- 
len),  agricultural  schools  (Landwirtschaftsschuleri),  normal 
schools  (Schullehrer-  und  Lehrerinnen- Seminar  ien)  and  mil- 

121 


122  GERMAN  RlQBfiR  SCHOOLS 

itary  schools  (Cadet ten- Corps)  are,  therefore,  outside  of  the 
scope  of  the  present  work.  The  conditions  imposed  above 
give  the  following  classification  of  the  higher  schools  of  Ger- 
many : 

1.  Gymnasien  and  Progymnasien. 

2.  Realgymnasien  and  Realprogymnasien. 

3.  Oberrealschuhn,  Realschulen  and  Hohere  Bilrgerschulen. 

4.  Special  schools  with  approved  curricula. 

The  aim  of  the  Gymnasium  is  "to  prepare  its  students 
through  a  broad  humanistic  training  for  the  independent 
study  of  the  arts  and  sciences."  Paulsen  says, 
"  Tne  ideal  of  the  new  education  is  a  human 
being  whose  faculties  enable  him  to  form  a 
clear  and  definite  conception  of  the  actual  world  ;  who,  by 
virtue  of  his  will,  is  able  to  recognize  and  follow  his  original 
bent  ;  whose  imagination  and  fine  emotions 
are  trained  to  the  perception  of  the  beautiful 
and  the  heroic.  This  is  a  man  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word  : 
this  is  true  humanistic  culture."  At  all  times  the  allgemeine 
wissenschaftliche  Bildung  of  the  pupil  is  to  be  regarded  as 
the  chief  function  of  the  Gymnasien.  Recently  the  term 
Humanistische  Gymnasien  has  been  employed  to  differen- 
tiate these  schools  from  the  Realgymnasien,  which  have 
given  somewhat  more  attention  to  the  practical  side  of  edu- 
cation. 

The  Prussian  Gymnasium  has  nine  classes  in  three  divis- 
ions of  three  classes  each.  The  lower  classes  are  Sexta, 
Quinta  and  Quanta;  the  middle  classes,  Un- 
tertertia,  Obertertia  and  Untersecunda ;  and 
the  upper  classes,  Obersecunda,  Unterprima  and  Oberprima. 
One  entire  school  year  is  given  to  each  class.  Admission  to 
the  Gymnasium  requires  that  the  pupil  be  at  least  nine  years 
of  age,  and  that  he  shall  have  had  a  three  years'  preparatory 
course  in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic  and  religion.  This 
preparatory  training  may  be  obtained  in  the  elementary 
schools,  private  and  public,  and  in  the  special  Vorschulen 
connected  with  many  Gymnasien. 


THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OF  PRUSSIA 


123 


The  curriculum  (Lehrplan)  of  the  Gymnasien,  as  of  all 
public  schools,  is  outlined  by  the  government,  but  consider- 
able freedom  is  left  to  the  school  and  to  in- 
dividual teachers  both  in  the  selection  of  ma- 
terial for  instruction  and  in  the  methods  of  presentation. 
Two  general  divisions  are  made  in  the  subjects  of  the  course  : 
(1)  Wissenschaftliche  Packer,  under  which  are  classed  relig- 
ion, the  German  language  and  literature,  Latin,  Greek, 
French  (English  and  Hebrew  as  electives),  history  and  geog- 
raphy, mathematics,  and- natural  sciences;  (2)  Kunste  und 
Fertigkeiten,  including  drawing,  writing,  singing  and  gym- 
nastics. The  course  of  study,  as  prescribed  by  ministerial 
rescript  of  January  6,  1892,  for  the  Prussian  Gymnasien,  is 
as  follows  : 

LEHRPLAN  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  GTMNASIEN. 


.Subjects. 

VI. 

V. 

IV. 

Illft. 

Ilia. 

116. 

Ho. 

16. 

la. 

Total 
Week- 
Hours. 

Religion  

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

19 

German  and  \ 
History  Stories.,  j 
Latin  

H' 

2l... 
U3 

8 

3 

7 

2 

7 

2 

7 

3 

7 

3 
6 

3 
6 

3 
6 

26 
62 

Greek  

6 

6 

6 

a 

6 

6 

86 

French           .     .  . 

4 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

19 

English  (Elective) 

Hebrew  (Ele&ive) 

History  ami  j 
Geography  | 
Mathematics  
Natural  History  
Physics,    Element* 
of  Chemistry  and 

2 

4 
2 

2 

4 
2 

2'^ 

fi 

2 

!!• 

3 
2 

21, 

ll3 
3 

2 

'I3 

2 

8 

4 

2 

3 
4 

2 

3 
4 

2 

26 

34 

8 

10 

Writing  ... 

2 

2 

4 

Drawing  ^ 
Singing     

-2 

2 
2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

4 

Gymnastics  

3 

3 

o 

8 

3 

3 

8 

3 

3 

27 

Totals.   

30 

30 

31 

33 

33 

33 

31 

31 

31 

283 

The  gymnasial  curricula  of  the  other  German  states  are 
closely  modelled  after  the  Prussian  type.  The  southern  states, 
however,  as  is  indicated  in  the  following  com- 
parative table  of  week-hours,  show  a  disposition 
to  give  relatively  more  time  to  the  classics  and  less  to  mathe- 
matics and  science. 


In  Other  States. 


124 


GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  GYMNASIAL  CURRICULA. 


Subjects. 

Prussia. 

Bavaria. 

Saxony. 

Wttrtem- 
berg. 

Hamburg. 

Weimar. 

Keligiou  

19 

18 

20 

18 

18 

19 

Herman  

M 

27 

25 

24 

21 

23 

Latin 

62 

66 

71—73 

81 

69 

72 

Greek  

36 

36 

40—42 

40 

36 

40 

French  

19 

10 

18 

18 

19 

18 

History  and  Geography.  . 

26 
34 

25 

29 
33 

24 
33 

28 
29 

28 
30 

Physics                

10 

>       33 

1            ,K 

11-     ( 

8 

Natural  History  

8 

5 

\     15 

14 

It,    | 

10 

Writing    

4 

4 

n 

4 

4    l 

4 

Drawing    

8 

4 

4 

7 

10 

6 

Totals  (exclusive  of  Sing- 
ing and  Gymnastics)  .  . 

252 

228 

258-62 

263 

250 

256 

Progymnasiuin. 


The  Progymnasien  are  Gymnasien  lacking  some  of  the 
higher  classes.  They  are  usually  found  in  the  smaller  towns, 
where  few  pupils  remain  after  completing  the 
six  years'  course  required  for  one  year's  volun- 
tary service  in  the  army.  Those  pupils  who  would  naturally 
advance  into  the  upper  classes  are  sent  to  some  neighboring 
town.  Hence,  as  a  rule,  the  Progymnasien  have  only  the 
lower  and  middle  classes,  i.e.,  a  six  years'  course. 

The  Gymnasien  are  the  classical  preparatory  schools  for 
the  universities.  All  roads  to  the  learned  professions  and  to 
the  higher  posts  in  the  civil  and  military  ser- 
v*ce  ^ea(^  ou^  ^rom  these  schools.  Historically, 
they  are  the  centre  and  strength  of  the  German 
school  system  ;  and  while  schools  of  a  different  nature  have 
been  established  with  a  view  to  modern  economic  needs,  pop- 
ular prejudice  is  so  strong  that  only  graduates  of  the  Gym- 
nasien are  regarded  as  cultured.  The  classics  may  be-  a  fet- 
ich, but  for  the  German  mind  they  have  a  charm  too 
powerful  to  be  easily  broken.  "  The  classical  literature  is, 
and  will  continue  to  be,  the  source  of  all  our  culture.  It 
must  remain,  therefore,  not  only  an  indispensable,  but  by 
far  the  most  important  study  in  our  higher  schools."  This 
thought,  expressed  a  century  ago  by  Frederick  Gedike,  the 
first  Oberschulrat  of  Prussia,  has  been  the  guiding  principle 
of  the  Gymnasien  to  the  present  time. 


THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OF  PRUSSIA 


125 


In  1897  there  were  in  Germany  439  Gymnasien  and  92 
Progymnasien,  of   which  277  Gymnasien  and  53  Progym- 
nasien were  in  Prussia.     Bavaria  stands  next 
with  40  Gymnasien,  and  Saxony  and  Alsace-     ^^nd 
Lorraine  each  have   17  ;  Wiirtemberg   has   1G 
Gymnasien  and  3  Progymnasien  ;  Baden,  14  of  the  former 
and  2  of  the  latter.     The   other  states  of  the  empire  have 
from  1  to  9  each.     In  1895-96  the  attendance  at  the  Prussian 
Gymnasien  was  76,078,  and  at  the   Progymnasien,  4,544, 
or  about  fifty-seven  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of  pupils 
in  the  secondary  schools. 

"  The  aim  of  the  Realgymnasien,  as  of  the  humanistic 
Gymnasien,  is  to  give  the  youth  a  liberal  education  founded, 
however,  especially  on  instruction  in  the  mod- 
ern languages,  mathematics  and  the  natural 
sciences."  The  class  divisions  and  the  general 
requirements  are  the  same  as  in  the  Gymnasien,  but  the  cur- 
riculum is  somewhat  different.  English  takes  the  place  of 
Greek,  and  more  time  is  devoted  to  French  and  the  natural 
sciences.  The  LeJirplan  of  these  schools  in  Prussia  is  as  fol- 
lows : 

LEHRPLAN  OP  THE  PRUSSIAN  REALGYMNASIEN. 


Subjects. 

VI. 

V. 

IV. 

III6. 

Ilia. 

116. 

II". 

16. 

la. 

Total 
Week- 
Hours. 

Religion  

ft 

9 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

19 

German  and    ,. 

3)  , 

91   »    n 

History  Stories         . 

IP 

1  1 

Latin  

M8 

8 

7 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

3 

43 

French          .   .  .   .•.  

5 

5 

5 

4 

4 

4 

4 

31 

English  

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

18 

History  and  

{  n 

1  n 

21  . 

21  A 

21  A 

•->'.., 

1 

r 

?r 

n4 

9(4 

1  f3 

Mathematics  .                ... 

4 

5 

5 

6 

5 

5 

5 

42 

Natural  History  

?! 

9 

91 

2 

2 

2 

12 

3 

3 

3 

3 

12 

Chemistry  and  Mineralogy. 
Writing  . 

'? 

*fl 

2 

3 

3 

6 
4 

Drawing  

91 

9 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

16 

K 

? 

4 

Gymm-stics  

3 

8 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

27 

Totals                

30 

30 

3? 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

S3 

290 

126 


GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 


Policy  of  the 

Government. 


In  accordance  with  the  recommendation  of  the  King  and  of 
the  Berlin  Conference  of  December,  1890,  the  Prussian  min- 
istry has  persistently  sought  to  do  away  with  the 
Realgymnasien.  As  a  consequence,  the  attend- 
ance at  these  schools  has  decreased  and  some  of 
them  have  adopted  another  curriculum.  But  even  in  Prus- 
sia, Realgymnasien  still  exist,  and  are  likely  to  outlive  the 
King  who  signed  their  death-warrant.  Saxony  has  always 
stoutly  defended  the  Realgymnasien,  and,  in  fact,  the  southern 
states  in  general  support  them  with  greater  liberality  than 
does  Prussia.  This  is  evident  in  the  following  comparison  of 
the  number  of  week-hours  allotted  to  the  different  subjects  in 
the  various  states. 

COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  REALOYMNASIAL  CURRICULA. 


Subject*. 

Pruuia. 

Bararia. 

Saxony. 

WOrtem- 
berg. 

Hamburg. 

Weimar. 

Religion  

10 

IS 

91 

14 

18 

18 

German    

28 

27 

n 

20 

28 

27 

Latin  

43 

60 

64 

74  Yt 

M 

64 

French  

81 

20 

84 

27 

M 

32 

Englixh  

18 

13 

18 

11 

IB 

20 

HlHtory  and  Orography  .  . 
MathematicH      

28 
42 

M 

38 

80 
44 

22  Vt 
M 

m 

38 

30 
44 

Natural  HUtory  

12 

7 

12 

W 

18 

12 

Phyilc*  

12 

6 

12 

*y* 

11 

12 

OhemUtry  and   Mineral- 
ogy      

A 

6 

fi 

2 

8 

6 

Writing  

4 

4 

3 

5 

4 

4 

Drawing          

16 

23 

18 

25# 

IB 

18 

Total*  (exclusive  of  Sing- 
ing and  Gymnaitici)  . 

360 

247 

281 

*77« 

294 

277 

Portion  of 


The  Realgymnasium  arose  to  supply  an  actual  wan-i  in  the 
German  school  system.  Yet  from  the  beginning  tradition 
lias  retarded  its  progress,  and  whatever  gains 
have  been  made  are  the  results  of  long  and 
persistent  struggle.  Its  curriculum  is  of  es- 
pecial interest  to  Americans,  inasmuch  as  it  more  nearly 
corresponds  to  the  course  of  study  of  the  American  high 
school.  The  likeness  is  even  more  striking  when  Greek  is 
admitted  as  an  elective,  as  is  the  case  in  some  Realgymnasien 
of  Alsace-Lorraine.  The  policy  of  retaining  the  Realgym- 


THE  JTTOI7KR  SCHOOLS  OF  PRUSSIA  127 

nasium,  and  the  pedagogical  principles  involved,  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  a  subsequent  chapter.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  at  this 
point  that  graduates  of  the  Realgymnasium  are  admitted  to 
university  courses  in  mathematics,  the  natural  sciences 
and  modern  languages,  and  to  all  technological  schools. 
They  are,  however,  denied  admission  to  the  professions  of 
law,  medicine  and  theology,  and  to  certain  coveted  positions 
in  the  civil  service.  The  slight  put  upon  this  school,  es- 
pecially by  the  Prussian  government  and  the  medical  fra- 
ternity, serves  to  retard  its  progress  and  hamper  its  useful- 
ness. 

There  are  in  Germany  128  Realgymnasien  and  93  Real- 
progymnasien.  Of  the  former  there  are  85  in  Prussia,  10 
in  Saxony,  5  in  Bavaria  and  3  in  Wiirtemberg ; 
of  the  latter,  Prussia  claims  6?  and  Wurtem- 
berg  4.  In  each  of  the  other  states  there  are 
less  than  10  of  both  kinds.  In  189G  the  Prussian  Real- 
gymnasien enrolled  24,534  pupils,  the  Realprogymnasien 
0,465,  making  in  all  twenty-three  per  cent,  of  the  total  num- 
ber of  higher-school  pupils  in  the  kingdom.1 

Higher  schools  in  which  the  classical  languages  are  not 
taught  are  called  Reahchulen.  Their  normal  number  of 
classes  is  six  ;  the  Oberreahchulen,  however,  have  three  ex- 
tra classes.  The  term  Hohere  liiirgerschulen,  as  applied  to 
approved  higher  schools,  is  fast  falling  into  disuse  ;  it  prop- 
erly belongs  to  a  high-grade  elementary  school.  The  Real- 
schulen  aim  to  fit  their  students  for  more  ef- 
fectual and  intelligent  participation  in  the  ac- 
tual  business  affairs  of  life  ;  hence  they  place 
particular  emphasis  on  the  modern  languages  and  the  natu- 
ral sciences.  Graduates  of  the  Oberreahchulen  are  admitted 
to  university  courses  in  mathematics  and  the  natural  sciences, 
and  may  eventually  become  teachers  of  these  branches  in  the 
secondary  schools.  On  the  whole,  their  social  standing  is 
about  on  a  par  with  the  graduates  of  the  Realgymnasien; 

1  Statittuchei  Jahrbuch  der  hohercn  Schulen,  1897-1898. 


128 


OERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 


both  are  commonly  looked  upon  as  inferior  to  the  classical 
student.  It  is  the  special  policy  of  the  Prussian  ministry 
to  multiply  the  number  of  these  schools  at  the  expense 
of  both  the  Gymnasien  and  the  Realyymnasien.  Their 
students  are  prepared  to  follow  practical  lines  of  activity, 
and  to  them  the  nation  looks  for  leaders  in  industrial  pur- 
suits. 

The  curriculum  of  the  Prussian  Olerrealsclmlen  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

LEHRPLAN  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  OBERREALSCHULEN. 


Subjects. 

VI. 

V. 

IV. 

Illft. 

Ilia. 

lift. 

Ha. 

Ift. 

la. 

Total 
Week- 
Hours. 

Religion  

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

19 

German  and  j 
History  Stories  ( 
French  

$: 

».' 

4 
6 

3 
6 

3 
6 

3 

5 

4 
4 

4 
4 

4 
4 

34 
47 

English  

5 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

25 

History  and  

t2 

2 

!f4 

vh 

?l< 

?}» 

3 

3 

S 

28 

Mathematics  

'5 

5 

6 

6 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

47 

Natural  History  .  .  . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 
2 

2 
2 

'3 

'3 

'3 

12 
13 

Chemistry  and  Min- 
eralogy   

2 

3 

3 

3 

11 

Writing  

2 

2 

2 

a 

Free-Hand  Drawing 

*2 

2 
2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

16 
4 

Gymnastics     

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

27 

Totals  

30 

30 

31 

33 

33 

83 

33 

33 

33 

289 

Numbers. 


Prussia  had,  in  1896,  26  Oberrealschulen  and  60  Real- 
schulen /  Wiirtemberg  had  6  OberreaUchulen,  Baden  had  3, 
Alsace-Lorraine  had  3,  and  Oldenburg  and 
Brandenburg  each  had  1  ;  in  the  other  states 
there  were  no  schools  of  this  kind.  Bavaria  had  46  Real- 
schulen  ;  Saxony,  23  ;  Wiirtemberg,  9  ;  Baden,  14  ;  Hesse, 
16  ;  Alsace-Lorraine,  8 ;  and  all  the  remaining  states,  22. 
This  gives  a  total  of  40  Oberrealschulen  and  198  Realschulen 
in  the  empire. 

The  Lehrplan  of  the  Oberrealsclmlen  of  Wiirtemberg  for 
the  last  nine  years  of  the  course  assigns  to  religion  19  week- 
hours  ;  German,  28  ;  French,  55  ;  English,  18 ;  history  and 
geography,  28  ;  mathematics,  83  ;  natural  history,  10 ;  phys- 


THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OF  PRUSSIA  129 


ics  and  chemistry,  10  ;  writing,  6  ;  and  drawing,  25.     The 
other  states  follow  more  closely  the  Prussian  plan. 

High  schools  attended  by  both  sexes  are  unknown  in  Ger- 
many.    Coeducation,  so  far  as  it  exists  at  all,  is  restricted 
to  the  Volkssclmlen,  where  the  pupils  are  under 
fourteen  vears  of  age.     In  fact,  the  secondary  4"  ^secon*- 

0  »        ary  Schools. 

education  of  girls  is  largely  a  matter  of  con- 
venience.    In  Prussia  there  are  568  higher  schools  for  boys, 
and  only  128  for  girls.      Of  the  boys'  schools  272  are  sup- 
ported wholly  or  in  part  by  the  state  ;  while  only  four  girls' 
schools  receive   any   state  aid.1      This  means 

.   .  ,       ,        ,  ,  1-1  -i          Girls' Schools. 

that  girls  schools  are  almost  exclusively  under 
city  patronage,  or  on  special  foundations,  or  exist  for  private 
gain;  and,  as  a  natural  consequence,  there  is  little  uni- 
formity in  respect  either  to  curriculu.ni  or  methods.  More- 
over, uniformity  has  been  unnecessary,  since  no  special 
privileges  have  been  attached  to  graduation  from  a  girls' 
higher  school.  Women  are  not  wanted  in  the  university ; 
hence  there  is  no  need  of  a  gymnasial  course  of  study. 
They  are  worthless  as  soldiers ;  hence  no  advantage  in  a 
specified  curriculum  that  grants  the  privilege  of  one  year  of 
voluntary  service  in  the  army!  Nevertheless,  some  needed 
reforms  have  been  brought  about  within  the  past  four  or  five 
years.2 

An  association  of  women  teachers  (Allgemeiner  Deutscher 
LeJirerinnen-Verein)  was  formed  in  1890  for  the  express 
purpose  of  advancing  their  professional  standing.  Their 
main  object  was  to  obtain  the  right  to  teach  in  the  higher 
classes  of  the  Hohere  Madchenschulen.  It  was  argued  that 
young  women  in  the  advanced  grades  of  the  secondary 
schools  should  not  be  taught  exclusively  by  men ;  the  sub- 

1  Cf.  Wychgram,  JTandbuch  des  hoheren  Madchenschulwesens,  Leipsic, 
1897,  p.  55. 

s  See :  Von  der  Decken,   Die  gebildete  Frau  und  die  neue  Zeit,  Got- 
tingen ;  Ichenhauser,  Die  Ausnahmestellung  Detttschlands  in  Sachen  des 
Frauenstudiums,  Berlin;  and  files  of  Die  Frauenbewegung,  Die  Frau  and 
Neue  Bahnen. 
ft 


130  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

jects  of  religion,  German  and  history  at  least,  it  was  modestly 
suggested,  could  be  satisfactorily  presented  by  women.  But 
this  involved  the  problem  of  university  train- 
Teachers8  mS  ^or  women.  Candidates  for  the  position  of 
teacher  are  required  to  pass  a  state  examination ; 
and  in  order  to  do  this  there  must  be  adequate  preparation. 
Women  with  the  indiscriminate  training  of  a  girls'  higher 
school  could  not  aspire  to  the  positions  occupied  by  univer- 
sity men. 

The  first  step,  therefore,  toward  a  fixed  curriculum  for 
these  schools  was  taken  under  the  necessity  of  knowing  with 
what  sort  of  preparation  women  should  undertake  higher 
study. 

A  ministerial  rescript,  dated  May  31,  1894,  fixes  a  curricu- 
lum for  the  Hohere  Madchenschulen.  It  also  provides  for 
the  appointment  of  women  to  any  position  in 
^ne  upper  grades,  and  requires  that  a  woman 
be  made  associate  principal  in  case  a  man  is 
the  head  of  the  school,  and  that  one  of  the  three  head  teach- 
ers in  any  event  be  a  woman.  This  is  the  first  important 
concession  made  to  women  teachers  by  the  Prussian  govern- 
ment ;  and  it  fixes  the  minimum  standard  of  the  preparation 
expected  of  them. 

Up  to  1897  only  thirty-nine  girls'  schools  had  been  placed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Prussian  provincial  school- 
boards,  and  thus  given  equal  rank  with  the  higher  schools 
for  boys.  By  far  the  larger  part  of  girls'  schools  are  thereby 
relegated  to  the  rank  of  Mittelschulen,  or  high  grade  ele- 
mentary schools ;  but  for  all  schools  in  which  two  foreign 
languages  are  taught  there  are  now  the  same  ideals  and  a 
common  standard.  The  activity  and  persistency  manifested 
by  the  various  organizations  of  women  is  turning  public 
attention  to  the  education  of  girls.  There  is  promise  of 
better  things  in  the  near  future.  The  curriculum  of  the 
girls'  higher  schools  in  Prussia  is  as  follows  : 


THE  IIIO HER  SCHOOLS  OF  PRUSSIA 


131 


LEHKPLAN  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  HOHERE  MADCHENSCHCLEW. 


Subject*. 

Lower 
Division. 

Middle 
Uivinion. 

Upper 
Division. 

[j 

i! 

Hi 

24 
54 
27 
12 

24 
10 
14 
12 

10  (8) 
7(») 
14 
12(18) 
1«(12) 

IX. 

VIII. 

VII. 

VI. 

V. 

IV. 

III. 

II. 

I. 

Keligion                   .... 

3 
10 

8 
9 

3 

8 

3 
5 
5 

S 

5 
5 

3 
5 
5 

2 
4 
4 
4 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

'2 
2 
2 

2 
4 
4 
4 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

'2 
2 
2 

2 

4 
4 
4 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

'2 
2 
2 

German  

French  

English  

Arithmetic  

•A 

}'; 

3 
3 

f" 

3 
'2 

'2 
2 

}* 

3 

-2 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 

8 
2 
2 

>i 

2 
2 

8 
2 
2 
2 
2    « 

'2 
2 
2 

History  

Natural  Sciences  
Drawing 

Writing  .... 

Sewing,  etc  

Singing  

Gymnastics  

Totals  

18 

20 

22 

28 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

238 

Pupils  enter  the  Madchen'scliulen  at  six  years  of  age,  there 
being  no  special  Vorschulen,  as  for  the  boys'  schools.  The 
course  of  nine  years,  therefore,  places  the  school  in  the  same 
class  as  the  Progymnasien,  Realprogymnasien  and  Real- 
schulen,  which  graduate  their  students  normally  at  the  age 
of  sixteen  years. 

The  reader  may  inquire  whether  German  girls  receive  no 
school  training  after  they  are  sixteen.  According  to  the  pres- 
ent Minister  of  Education,  a  twelve  years' course 
of  uninterrupted  study  would  make  such  de- 
mands  on  the  mental  and  physical  powers  of 
the  girls  that  after  graduation  they  would  be  unfitted  for 
life's  work.  "  It  is  further  to  be  presumed  that  a  girl  who 
has  gathered  as  much  knowledge  as  is  possible  in  a  nine  years' 
course  under  the  favorable  circumstances  which  now  obtain 
in  the  Holier e  Madchenschulen  will  feel  the  need  of  special- 
izing in  particular  branches,  without  being  compelled  to  pur- 
sue studies  for  which  she  has  no  special  liking  or  talents." 
Those  who  advocate  the  higher  education  of  women  pro- 
nounce such  manifestoes  as  merely  another  way  of  saying 


132  GERMAN  1I1QUER  SCHOOLS 

that  men  must  continue  to  monopolize  all  positions  in  the 
learned  professions. 

The  first  attempt  to  give  graduates  of  the  Hohere  Mdd- 

chenschulen  a  complete    gymnasia!   training    was  made  in 

Berlin,  where  a  school  was  organized  for  the 

Girls'  Gymnasien.  ° 

purpose  in  October,  1893.  It  has  since  been 
conducted  by  Friiulein  Helene  Lange,  one  of  the  foremost 
advocates  of  women's  rights  in  Germany.  The  school  aims 
to  fit  graduates  of  the  Hohere  Mddchenschulen  in  four  years 
for  the  Abiturienten-Examen,  which  carries  with  it  the  priv- 
ilege of  university  study.  It  remains  to  be  seen,  however, 
whether  the  Prussian  universities  will  open  their  doors  to 
women,  even  though  they  are  as  well  qualified  for  entrance  as 
young  men.  Some  of  them  have  already  conceded  the  point, 
but  many  obstacles  are  yet  to  be  overcome  before  it  can  be 
said  that  the  German  universities  are  coeducational  insti- 
tutions. 

In  1893  a  girls'  Gymnasium  was  also  opened  at  Carlsruhe, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Frauenbildung-  Reform-  Verein. 
'  Pupils  entering  this  school  must  be  at  least  twelve  years  of 
age  ;  and  after  one  year's  preparation  in  a  connecting  class, 
they  are  expected  to  finish  the  regular  classical  course  of  the 
boys'  school  in  five  years.  A  similar  school  was  established 
at  Leipsic,  in  April,  1894,  by  the  Allgemeiner  Deutscher 
Frauen-  Verein,  under  the  principalsbip  of  Friiulein  von 
Windscheid,  the  first  woman  to  receive  the  degree  of  Ph.D. 
from  the  University  of  Heidelberg.  The^  course  is  four  years, 
and  pupils  must  be  fifteen  years  old  at  entrance.  A  similar 
school  is  under  way  in  Munich. 

In  all  these  schools  the  curricula  ar/>  planned  to  supplement 
the  earlier  training  of  the  girls,  that  they  may  graduate  on  a 

level  with  the  boys  of  the  Gymnasien.     They 
*    are  recognised  by  the  authorities  to  the  extent 


of  being  allowed  to  exist,  and  it  is  probable 
that  some  means  will  be  found  to  enable  their  graduates  to 
continue  their  work  at  the  universities.  Heidelberg  already 
admits  women  to  the  department  of  Science-Mathematics, 


THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OF  PRUSSIA  133 

and  grants  them  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  if  all  the  work  has  been 
done  there.  Gottingen  allows  women  as  "  auditors,"  and  has 
granted  several  Ph.D.'s  to  women.  Freiburg  admits  women 
as  guests  in  the  departments  of  philosophy  and  medicine. 
Leipsic  permits  them  to  register  and  pay  tuition  fees,  but 
professors  have  no  legal  right  to  receive  them  in  the  lecture- 
rooms.  "  We  simply  don't  see  them,  if  they  happen  to  be 
there,"  a  member  of  the  faculty  once  naively  remarked  to 
me.  All  other  German  universities  do  not  tolerate  women  at 
all,  or  hedge  the  privilege  about  to  such  an  extent  that  very 
few  can  secure  entrance.1 

The  public  day  schools  of  Germany  are  so  peculiarly  Ger- 
man, such  perfect  expressions  of  the  national  policy  in  edu- 
cation, that  little  is  heard  of  that  other  class 

,     .       -r,      ,       ,  .  Private  Schools. 

so  prominent  in  J&ngland  and  America — the 
boarding-school.  It  exists,  nevertheless,  and  is  no  less  Ger- 
man than  the  former.  There  are  private  institutions,  too, 
of  all  grades,  though  but  few  are  recognised  as  "  schools." 
The  higher  education  of  girls  is  mostly  in  private  hands,  or 
supported  only  in  part  by  the  community.  In  the  city  of 
Hamburg,  for  example,  with  11  public  and  7  private  higher 
schools  for  beys,  there  are  for  girls  5  public  and  65  private 
secondary  schools.  Of  the  Berlin  higher  schools,  38  are 
for  boys  and  32  for  girls  ;  all  of  the  boys'  schools  are  pub- 
lic, but  only  9  of  the  girls'  schools  receive  any  state  or  city 
aid.2 

Church  schools — evangelical,  catholic  and  Jewish — are 
plentiful  and  generally  have  boarding  departments.  Schools 
for  backward  pupils,  and  commercial  and  tech- 

Church  Schools. 

nical  schools,  are  usually  private  or  local.     But 

of  all  the  influences  which  tend  to  promote  private  schools 

for  boys  the  strongest  is  the  privilege  of  the  one-year  volun- 

1  See  Die  akademische  Frau :  Gutachten  hcrvorragender  Universitdts- 
professoren,  Fraiienlehrer  und  Schriftsteller  uber  die  Befdhigung  der 
Frau  zum  wissenschaftlichcn  Stadium  und  JJerufe,  edited  by  Kirekhof, 
Berlin. 

*  Statistics  of  1893. 


134  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

teer  service  in  the  army  ;  this  may  be  secured  only  on  the 
completion  of  a  six  years'  course  of  study  in  a  privileged 
higher  school,  or  upon  examination  by  a  governmental  board. 
It  is  possible  for  students  dropped  from  the  public  schools, 
or  for  those  who,  from  choice  or  necessity,  would  take  a 
shorter  course,  to  find  instruction  in  private  institutions 
whose  sole  aim  is  to  fit  for  the  state  examination.  As  before 
stated,  these  are  not  "  schools "  from  the  German  point  of 
view,  but  Fabriken  or  Pressen — either  term  being  suggestive 
enough  of  the  methods  employed. 

The  necessity  for  private  venture  in  the  education  of  girls 

naturally  gives  rise  to  many  "  finishing "  schools,  in  which 

social  rank  plays  a  conspicuous  role.    The  more 

Boarding-schools.  *  . 

pretentious  the  rank,  the  more  likely  is  it  to 
be  a  boarding-school.  Many  of  these  schools  are  under  the 
honorary  protection  of  the  various  German  courts,  and  there- 
by enjoy  decided  popularity.  Institutions  for  the  education 
of  backward  pupils,  as  those  for  orphans  and  others  of  char- 
itable aim,  are  naturally  home  schools.  At  the  head  of  such 
institutions  stands  the  renowned  Franckesche  Stiftungen  in 
Halle,  a  group  of  schools  of  different  grades  for  orphans  of 
both  sexes.  But  the  question  of  home  accommodations  for 
higher  school  pupils,  irrespective  of  sex,  class  or  condition, 
is  really  more  serious  than  in  America.  In  Germany  there 
are  some  25,000  post-offices,  each  of  which  represents  a  cen- 
tre of  population.  The  pastor,  physician  and  school-master, 
not  to  mention  wealthy  peasants  and  government  officials, 
may  aspire  to  give  their  sons  the  higher  training.  But  in  all 
Germany  there  are  but  1,173  privileged  higher  schools,  and 
the  6ondition  is  made  still  clearer  when  one  learns  that  the 
twenty-five  largest  cities  have  two  hundred  and  eight  of  these 
schools.  Or,  to  put  it  in  another  way,  there  are  in  Germany 
about  2,500  cities  and  towns  of  over  2,000  inhabitants,  and 
these  have  less  than  forty  per  cent,  of  the  total  population. 
The  number  of  boys  that  must  leave  home  at  nine  or  ten 
years  of  age  to  begin  their  university  preparation  is  presum- 
ably greater  than  in  the  United  States,  where  the  4,500  high 


THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OF  PRUSSIA  135 

schools  have  a  total  enrolment  not  appreciably  larger  than 
obtains  in  the  German  schools.  But  because  of  the  uniform 
excellence  of  the  public  schools,  and  from  motives  of  econ- 
omy, the  average  country  lad  will  make  his  home  with  a 
family  residing  near  a  public  school  which  he  enters  as  a  day 
pupil. 

The  better  grade  boarding-schools  are  recruited  mainly 
from  two  sources,  the  nobility  and  the  commercial  class.  The 
gymnasial  course  leading  to  the  university  and  to  the  highest 
posts  in  the  army  and  civil  service  will  naturally  be  sought 
by  the  former  ;  the  aim  of  the  latter  is  to  secure  the  privi- 
lege of  but  one  year  of  army  service  and  a  practical  prepara- 
tion for  business  life. 

Private  venture  schools  are  not  suffered  to  exist  in  Ger- 
many unless  they  satisfy  an  actual  public  need,  and  have  the 
ability  to  maintain  the  governmental  standard. 
They  must  also  conform  to  the  prescribed  cur- 
ricula  for  secondary  schools,  if  they  would  se- 
cure the  privileges  granted  to  schools  of  that  grade.  Girls' 
schools  in  general,  and  boys'  schools,  too,  beyond  the  fixed 
requirements,  may  exercise  considerable  freedom  in  regulat- 
ing their  work  along  special  lines. 

The  German  school  system  is  not  designed  to  lead  pupils 
step  by  step  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  university,  to 
form  a  connected  series  of  grades,  each  of 
which  is  the  natural  development  of  the  pre- 
ceding  one.  The  elementary  and  secondary 
schools  are  quite  independent  of  each  other.  It  is  trne  that 
certain  Mittelschulen,  technological  and  trade  schools,  receive 
pupils  from  the  Volksschulen,  but  not  one  boy  in  ten  thousand 
finds  his  way  from  the  highest  class  of  the  elementary  school 
into  the  Gymnasium.  The  parent  is  obliged  to  choose  a 
school  for  his  nine-year  old  son,  and  on  this  selection  depends 
in  a  large  measure  the  boy's  future  career.  The  necessity  of 
practically  determining  the  trend  of  a  boy's  education  before 
his  personality  is  adequately  known,  places  a  responsibility 
upon  many  parents  which  they  cannot  properly  discharge. 


136 


GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 


Errors  of  judgment  often  result  in  the  transference  of  pupils, 
after  two  or  three  years  of  training,  from  one  kind  of  school 
to  another  better  adapted  to  their  abilities.  The  difficulties 
thereby  encountered  are  obvious  from  a  comparison  of  the 
various  courses  of  study  outlined  in  this  chapter. 

In  Frankfort-on-the-Main  a  noteworthy  attempt  has  been 
made,  since  Easter,  1892,  to  remedy  these  evils,  and  at  the 

same  time  to  infuse  more  life  into  the  studies 
eptokfOT     °^  ^e  secondary  schools  by  introducing  shorter 

and  more  intensive  courses.  The  plan,  as  de- 
signed by  Dr.  Karl  Reinhardt,  Director  of  the  Stddtisches 
Gymnasium,  prescribes  the  same  curriculum  during  the  first 
three  school-years  for  the  Gymnasium,  the  Realgymnasium 
and  the  Oberrealschule.  In  this  way  transference  is  compara- 
tively easy  between  all  schools  for  three  years  ;  and  between 
the  Gymnasium  and  the  Realgymnasium  it  is  possible  as 
late  as  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  school  year.  Inasmuch  as 
the  Frankfort  plan  has  received  the  sanction  of  the  Prus- 
sian Department  of  Education,  and  has  been,  adopted  in  many 
places,  it  deserves  mention  here  among  the  curricula  of  the 
approved  higher  schools. 

l.i.iiKi-i. \M:  OF  FRANKFORT  GYMNASIUM  AND  REALGTMNASITTM. 


Subjects. 

VI. 

V. 

rv 

IIU. 

Ilia. 

116. 

Ha. 

16. 

la. 

Total 
Week 

Hours 

Gym.  &  RG. 

G. 

RG. 

G. 

RG. 

G. 

RG. 

G. 

RG. 

G. 

RG. 

G. 

RG. 

G. 

RG 

Religion  

3 
6 

2 
4 

2 
4 

2 
3 

10 

2 

3 

8 

2 
3 
10 

2 
8 

8 

2 
8 
8 
8 
2 

2 
3 
6 

's 

6 

8 
4 

2 
8 
8 
8 
3 

3 
4 

2 
3 
6 

'8 

4 

3 
5 

2 

3 
8 
8 
2 

2 
4 

3 

3 
6 

*8 
4 

3 
5 

2 
3 
8 
8 
2 

3 
8 

2 

8 

"» 
4 

8 
5 

19 
31 
52 
32 
30 

24 

37 
10 
8 

"4 
8 

19 
81 
40 

88 
18 

27 
42 
10 
9 
0 
4 
1A 

Latin     

Greek  .    . 

6 

6 

6 

2 

4 

3 

4 

Englinh  

Hintory  and 
Geography.  .  . 
Mnthematics  . 
Natural  History 
Physics  ... 

2 
5 

2 

2 

6 
2 

6 
5 
3 

3 
4 
2 

3 
4 
2 

3 
4 
2 

3 
4 
2 

3 

3 

2 

3 

3 

3 
3 

2 

3 
2 

2 

3 

2 

'2 

ChemUtry 

Writing. 

i 

f 

Drawing  

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

Total*   

26 

25 

26 

28 

28 

28 

28 

30 

32 

31 

32 

31 

33 

31 

32 

265 

260 

THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OF  PRUSSIA  137 

In  the  lower  classes  French  is  strongly  emphasized,  and  is 
taught  with  special  reference  to  the  Latin  that  follows.  Latin 
is  introduced  in  the  third  year  and  studied  only  comparison 
six  years,  and  Greek  is  reduced  to  four  years,  with  Regular 
As  compared  with  the  regular  gymnasial  pro- 
gram, the  mother-tongue  gets  five  more  week-hours ;  Latin, 
seventeen  hours  less ;  Greek,  four  hours  less ;  mathematics, 
one  hour  more ;  French,  eleven  hours  more ;  history,  the 
same ;  drawing,  the  same.  The  aim  is  to  arrive  at  results  as 
good  as  those  attained  by  following  the  regular  course,  the 
difference  being  in  the  method  of  procedure.  The  final  out- 
come of  the  scheme  is  awaited  with  intense  interest  both  by 
its  friends  and  foes.  On  its  success  or  failure  depends  a 
possible  solution  of  one  of  the  most  important  pedagogical 
problems  before  the  German  educationists  of  the  present 
time. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES: — Wiese-Kiibler,  Gesetze  und  Verordnungen ; 
Lehrplane  und  Lehraufgaben  fur  die  hoheren  Schulen,  Berlin,  1893; 
Schwartz,  Der  Organismus  der  Gymnasien  in  seiner  praktischen  Gestal- 
tung,  Berlin,  1876 ;  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  der  hoheren  Schulen  Deutsch- 
lands  ;  Kunze,  Kalendar  fur  das  hohere  Schulwesen  Preussens,  Breslau, 
1894 ;  Wychgram,  Handbuch  des  hoheren  Madchenschulwesens,  Leipsic, 
1897 ;  Lange,  Entwicklung  und  Stand  des  hoheren  Madchenschulwesens 
in  Deutschland,  Berlin,  1893 ;  Reinhardt,  Die  Frankfurter  Lehrpldne, 
Frankfort,  1892  ;  Centralblatt,  and  Encyclopedias  of  Schraid  and  Rein. 
See  Bibliography,  p.  455,  Nos.  1,  2,  3, 4,  5,  6, 11,  12,  23,  24,  25. 


CHAPTER  VII 
FOUNDATION  AND  MAINTENANCE  OF   HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

THE  Gymnasium  was  originally  founded  by  the  Church  as 
a  professional  school  for  the  training  of  the  clergy.  It  was 
intended  to  teach  especially  what  was  consid- 
ere(^  necessary  for  a  priest  of  the  Church  to 
know.  The  languages  of  the  Bible  and  of  the 
Church  Fathers  —  Latin,  Greek  and  Hebrew — were  all-im- 
portant, Latin  above  all  others.  Under  the  influence  of  the 
Renaissance  and  the  Reformation  these  schools  assumed  a 
more  general  character,  and  yet  in  Germany  their  main  pur- 
pose was  unaltered.  The  Protestant  Church,  inspired  with 
the  worth  of  each  immortal  soul,  demanded  for  its  ministers 
a  more  liberal  education  than  had  been  deemed  necessary  for 
the  clergy  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  Schools  prepared  to  af- 
ford this  training — the  highest  in  the  land — in  time  were 
opened  to  any  one  who  desired  a  preparation  for  the  higher 
intellectual  life.  The  sphere  of  their  influence  was  extended, 
while  their  main  purpose  remained  as  before. 

Many  of  the  early  ecclesiastical  foundations  remain  at  the 
present  day.  The  oldest  of  the  existent  classical  schools  of 
Germany  was  founded  in  Fulda  in  the  eighth 
century.  It  is  still  catholic,  although  now 
supported  by  the  Prussian  government.  The 
Gymnasium  at  Osnabriick,  known  as  the  Carolinum,  was  es- 
tablished under  charter  of  Charles  the  Great,  dated  Decem- 
ber 19,  804.  Another  interesting  old  school,  founded  by  the 
Roman  Church  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  ninth  century,  is 
the  Gymnasium  of  Hildesheim.  It  was  taken  over  by  the 

138 


FOUNDATION  OF  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  139 

Jesuits  in  1595,  and  is  still  supported  by  the  Church.  Of  the 
other  catholic  Gymnasien  of  modern  Prussia,  one  was  found- 
ed in  1450,  another  in  1474,  and  seven  between  1545  and 
1580.  The  comparatively  large  number  of  classical  schools 
still  in  existence  which  were  established  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  sixteenth  century  is  an  interesting  commentary  on  the 
work  of  the  Jesuits.  In  addition  to  those  already  mentioned, 
no  fewer  than  twenty-one  of  the  present  Prussian  Gymnasien 
were  originally  on  catholic  foundations,  but  went  over  to  the 
protestants  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation.  One  of  these 
schools  (Zeitz)  had  been  established  as  early  as  968 — two  in 
the  twelfth  century,  five  in  the  thirteenth,  nine  in  the 
fourteenth,  one  in  the  fifteenth,  and  three  in  the  sixteenth. 
For  example,  the  city  Gymnasium  of  Konigsberg  was  found- 
ed in  1335  by  the  municipal  authorities  as  a  parochial  school 
in  connection  with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Under  the 
influence  of  the  head-master  who  was  in  charge  from  1518 
to  1541,  himself  a  convert  to  Luther's  preaching,  it  became 
a  protestant  Latin  school.  The  Kneipfhofisches  Gymnasium 
(Konigsberg),  founded  probably  as  early  as  1304  as  a  ca- 
thedral school,  went  over  to  the  Lutherans  at  about  the  same 
time.  The  Kollnisches  Gymnasium  of  Berlin,  probably  the 
oldest  classical  school  of  the  province,  has  been  protestant 
since  1540.  The  present  site  of  the  Berlin  Gymnasium  zum 
grauen  Kloster  belonged  to  the  Franciscans  from  1290  to 
1539,  when  the  monastery  was  closed.  Elector  Johann 
George  afterward  presented  one-third  of  the  cloister  to  the 
present  Gymnasium,  which  opened  for  the  first  time  in  1574. 
It  is  something  to  be  thankful  for  that  in  those  days  "  con- 
science money  "  went  for  educational  purposes. 

Schools  on  protestant  foundations  date,  for  the  most  part, 
from  the  sixteenth  century.  The  steady  progress  of  educa- 
tion and  the  extension  of  the  school  system  un- 
der the  guidance  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon 
are  evident  from  the  number  of  schools  still  ex- 
isting in  Prussia  which  sprang  up  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Three  of  the  leading  protestant  Gymnasien  of  modern  Prussia 


140  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

were  established  prior  to  1530,  five  others  between  1530  and 
1540,  twelve  between  1540  and  1550,  and. twenty-four  others 
before  the  close  of  the  century.  The  majority  of  these  schools 
were  supported  by  the  municipalities  in  which  they  were 
located.  Occasionally  one  received  special  endowment  from 
some  wealthy  citizen.  Two  in  particular  deserve  special 
mention  :  one,  Pforta,  which  owes  its  origin  to  the  generos- 
ity of  Duke  Maurice  of  Saxony,  who  endowed  it  in  1543  with 
the  Cistercian  Abbey  of  St.  Mary's,  on  the  banks  of  the  Saale, 
not  far  distant  from  Naumburg,  the  other,  Rossleben,  a  clois- 
tral school  founded  in  1554  by  a  nobleman  of  the  province. 
I  shall  make  mention  later  of  some  of  the  striking  character- 
istics of  these  two  old  boarding-schools. 

There  are  in  Prussia  at  the  present  time  two  hundred  and 
seventy-seven  Gymnasien.     Of  this  number  it  will  be  seen 
that  seventy-seven,  or  nearly  one-fourth,  were  es- 

tablished  before  160°-  In  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury only  thirty-three  of  the  now  existent  Prus- 
sian Gymnasien  were  established,  and  most  of  these  were  on 
catholic  foundations.  Some  of  the  notable  exceptions  are 
the  Joachimsthalsches  Gymnasium  of  Berlin  (1607),  the 
Francke'sclie  Stiftungen  in  Halle  (1695-1697)  and  theFran- 
zosisches  Gymnasium  of  Berlin  (1689). 

Mention  should  be  made  in  this  place  of  some  of  the  re- 
nowned schools  of  the  other  German  states.     There  is  so 
much  of  the  life  of  the  German  people,  so  many 

In  Other  States.  • *     £  . ' 

interesting  facts  connected  with  their  history, 
stored  up  in  these  venerable  institutions,  that  I  find  myself 
seriously  tempted  to  stray  from  the  narrow  lines  of  this  chap- 
ter. The  Filrstenschulen  of  Meissen  and  Grimma  in  Saxony 
stand  side  by  side  with  Pforta  as  monuments  of  the  Elector 
Maurice.  Then  in  Leipsic  are  the  famous  Thomas- Schule 
(1221),  and  the  Nicolai  Gymnasium  which  was  founded  by  a 
bull  of  Boniface  IX.  in  1395.  Hamburg  boasts  of  the 
Gelehrtenschule  des  Johanneums,  of  which  Johann  Bugen- 
hagen,  Luther's  apostle  to  the  low  Germans,  was  the  first 
master.  The  protestant  Gymnasium  of  Strassburg  dates 


FOUNDATION  OF  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  141 

from  1538,  when  Sturm  began  his  work  in  that  city.  Tubing- 
en, Stuttgart,  Munich,  Augsburg,  Wiirzburg,  Nuremberg, 
and  many  other  cities  of  South  Germany  have  schools  that 
have  come  down  from  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  tendency  in  Prussia,  as  indeed  in  all  the  German 
states,  has  been  for  the  government  to  absorb  schools  on 
special  foundations,  and  by  taking  over  their 
endowments  to  make  them  purely  state  schools. 
In  some  instances  this  has  been  done  with  a 
view  to  the  equalization  of  school  funds ;  but  inasmuch  as 
there  is  no  comprehensive  school  law  in  Prussia  many  serious 
complications  still  continue.  There  are  schools  existing  by 
special  charter  which  have  done  a  great  work  in  the  past,  yet 
whose  funds  are  now  so  depreciated  that  retrenchment  must 
follow  if  state  aid  cannot  be  secured  ;  there  are  schools  estab- 
lished by  municipalities  to  which  the  government  makes 
annual  grants  ;  there  are  state  schools  supported  in  part  by 
local  rates ;  there  are  others  which  have  several  sources  of 
income.  This  mixed  state  of  affairs,  which  often  renders  it 
necessary  to  search  back  to  records  even  five  or  six  hundred 
years  old  in  order  to  settle  some  detail  of  administration,  is 
very  unsatisfactory  to  the  school  and  highly  exasperating  to 
the  officials.  An  inspector  once  told  me  of  a  village  school 
in  his  jurisdiction  the  teacher  of  which  must  look  to  eighteen 
different  sources  for  his  small  income.  He  gets  a  fee  for  be- 
ing church  chorister  ;  something  more  for  conducting  an 
evening  continuation  school ;  and  even  observances  long  obso- 
lete, such  as  personally  greeting  all  the  families  of  the  vil- 
lage on  Christmas  day,  have  each  their  particular  cash  value. 
Now  when  custom  decrees  that  Christmas  calls  are  no  longer 
the  mode,  how  is  the  poor  school-master  to  get  that  portion 
of  his  salary  which  is  dependent  on  this  labour  of  love  ?  Such 
problems  are  of  vital  interest — to  the  school -masters — and 
the  government  cannot  pass  them  by.  But  it  is  no  easy  task 
to  adjust  these  old  legacies  to  modern  requirements ;  often 
special  acts  of  Parliament  are  necessary  to  overcome  condi- 
tions imposed  by  charters  centuries  old.  There  are  weak 


14:2  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

Gymnasien,  too,  that  would  gladly  become  Realscliulen,  save 
that  some  clause  in  a  charter  centuries  old  requires  that 
Latin  be  taught  in  that  school  for  all  eternity.  Between 
giving  up  Latin  and  abandoning  the  foundation  there  can 
be  no  question.  The  dead  hand  rules.  Herein  are  some 
of  the  disadvantages  of  tradition. 

The  lower  schools  are  often  hampered  by  the  uncertain 
boundary  between  the  rights  of  the  clergy — also  a  survival  of 
the  times  when  the  schools  were  wholly  under 
the  control  of  the  church— and  the  duties  of 
the  state  inspectors.  Conflicts  are  by  no  means 
rare,  especially  in  Koman  Catholic  communities ;  and  the 
Minister  is  careful  to  avoid  establishing  any  new  precedent 
in  these  matters  which  might  give  rise  to  political  compli- 
cations. 

The  secondary  schools  are  more  fortunate.  Difficulties 
increase  with  the  number  of  patrons,  but  as  a  rule  there  is 
a  precise  understanding  as  to  the  rights  of 
Pa^ronage.  The  enormous  growth  in  the 
population  of  German  cities  since  1870  has 
rendered  necessary  the  establishment  of  large  numbers  of 
secondary  schools.  Rivalry  between  competing  cities,  or  the 
effort  to  build  up  a  new  suburb,  is  sure  to  create  a  demand 
for  additional  school  facilities.  For  example,  Berlin  had 
in  1872  a  population  of  864,300  ;  in  1893,  1,691,702.  During 
these  twenty  years  there  was  an  annual  average  increase  of 
more  than  6,000  in  the  school  population.  This  necessitated, 
besides  many  common  schools,  the  establishment  of  nineteen 
higher  schools,  practically  an  average  of  one  secondary  school 
a  year.1 

A  dozen  instances  of  phenomenal  growth  of  city  population 
could  be  cited  that  would  compare  favourably  with  the  most 
phenomenal  of  our  western  American  towns.3  I  shall  men- 


1  Report  of  Schul- Deputation  of  Berlin,  April,  1894. 
'  See  Shaw,  The  Government  of  German  Cities,  Century  Magazine.^ 
Vol. 


FOUNDATION  OF  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  143 

tion  only  one.  The  census  of  Magdeburg  in  1880  showed  a 
population  of  97,500  ;  in  1890  it  had  increased  to  202,234. 
The  area  within  the  city  walls  became  altogether  inadequate. 
As  a  means  of  relief  the  city  purchased  of  the  Prussian  gov- 
ernment the  site  of  the  old  fortifications,  paying  almost 
enough,  I  have  heard,  to  construct  still  stronger  walls  at  a 
greater  distance  out.  The  city  fathers  immediately  cut  up 
the  newly  acquired  tract  into  building  lots,  which  were  put  on 
the  market.  But  in  order  to  induce  a  better  class  of  resi- 
dents and  to  enhance  the  value  of  the  land,  a  Gymnasium 
was  established  in  1886  at  city  expense.  At  bottom  this  was 
a  pure  speculation,  a  land-boom  of  the  most  approved  type, 
and  but  for  the  rapid  increase  in  the  population  and  wealth 
of  the  locality  it  would  have  become  a  serious  drain  upon  the 
city  treasury.  The  result  is,  however,  that  a  flourishing 
town  has  sprung  up  and  the  city  has  made  a  fortune  in  the 
transaction. 

As  a  rule  cities  are  disposed  to  found  Gymnasien,  rather 
than  Real-schools,  because  of  the  higher  social  standing  of 
the  former.  The  town  with  many  Realschulen, 
or  even  many  Realgymnasien,  is  popularly  sup- 
posed  to  be  an  industrial  centre ;  while  Gym- 
nasien, on  the  contrary,  invariably  bespeak  a  professional  or 
wealthy  class.  Often  the  conflict  between  city  and  state 
waxes  warm  over  the  kind  of  school  to  be  established.  The 
state  cannot  compel  the  city  to  found  one  school  rather  than 
another  ;  in  fact,  it  cannot  compel  the  foundation  of  any 
school  at  all.  But  if  the  city  proposes  a  plan  counter  to  the 
policy  of  the  government,  some  exceptionally  strong  support, 
political,  social  or  religions,  will  be  necessary  to  avoid  the 
Minister's  veto.  It  is  no  simple  matter  for  a  town  nowa- 
days to  secure  an  additional  classical  school.  In  the  words  of 
the  Emperor,  the  times  demand  "  young  Germans,  upright, 
God-fearing  and  patriotic  citizens,  instead  of  young  Greeks 
and  Romans. " 

The  relations  sustained  by  the  municipality  to  the  state 
in  educational   affairs,  and  the  general    tendencies  of  the 


144  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

age,  are  perhaps  best  seen  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony.  There 
are,  all  told,  seventeen  Gymnasien  in  the  kingdom.  Four 
of  them — all  founded  prior  to  1586,  one  dating  back  to  the 
thirteenth  century — are  now  under  the  joint 
patronage  of  city  and  state  ;  six  are  state 
schools  ;  two  others,  founded  in  1300  and  1879 
respectively,  are  exclusively  city  foundations  ;  one  has  a 
special  endowment  (1638),  and  is  under  the  administration  of 
a  lineal  descendent  of  the  original  founder.  Grimma  (1550) 
and  St.  Afra  in  Meissen  (1543)  are  Kloster  Schulen,  having 
been  endowed  by  Maurice  of  Saxony  with  the  possessions  of 
secularized  monasteries.  The  two  oldest  Gymnasien  of  Leip- 
sic,  the  Thomas- Schule  (1221)  and  the  Nicolai  Gymnasium 
(1395),  are  supported  in  part  by  special  endowments,  in  part 
by  the  city.  Of  the  ten  Realgymnasien,  all  except  two  be- 
long to  the  present  century,  while  the  specific  character  of 
each  has  been  determined  within  the  past  fifty  years.  Sev- 
en of  these  schools  are  municipal,  only  three  being  royal. 
Moreover,  there  are  twenty-three  Realschulen  in  the  kingdom, 
all  of  them  under  city  control.  The  state,  however,  makes  a 
special  grant  of  12,000  marks  a  year  to  some  seventeen  of 
these  schools — those  outside  of  Dresden,  Leipsic  and  Chem- 
nitz— and  secures  thereby  the  privilege  of  appointing  the 
director  and  head-teachers.  As  to  the  relative  interests  of 
state  and  city  in  the  founding  of  a  new  school,  the  history  of 
Saxony  since  1870  is  very  suggestive ;  of  the  twenty-seven 
secondary  schools  called  into  existence  in  the  last  twenty-five 
years,  only  four  are  under  royal  patronage.  ' 

When  a  city  will  establish  a  new  school  it  enters  into  cove- 
nant with  the  state  to  house  it  properly,  to  provide  suitable 
furnishings  and  equipment,  and  to  support  it  in 
a  becoming  way  from  year  to  year.  But  first 
it  devolves  upon  the  municipality  to  show  that 
the  elementary  education  of  the  city  is  on  a  satisfactory  basis, 
and  that  there  is  genuine  need  of  a  secondary  school.  The 
approval  of  the  Minister  of  Education — and  nothing  can  be 
done  without  his  approval — is  also  conditioned  on  special  re- 


FOUNDATION  OF  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  145 

ports  made  to  him  by  government  officials  on  such  matters 
as,  for  example,  the  town's  ability  to  support  the  proposed 
institution,  and  whether  it  might  tend  to  weaken  some  other 
school  already  established.  Approval  once  granted  is  further 
conditioned  on  the  proper  execution  of  essential  details  :  the 
school  site  must  be  satisfactory  ;  the  plans  and  specifications 
of  the  building  must  be  submitted  to  the  supervising  architect 
of  the  province  and  passed  by  him  ;  the  denominational 
character  of  the  school,  on  which  depends  the  selection  of  a 
faculty,  must  conform  to  the  religious  belief  of  the  majority 
of  the  scholars ;  the  proposed  furnishings  and  equipment 
down  to  the  drinking  cups  and  blackboard  erasers  must  be 
of  proper  quality  and  amount.  Nothing  goes  unregulated  to 
which  a  regulation  can  be  at  all  applied. 

Perhaps  to  English  readers  the  most  suggestive  of  all  these 
requirements  is  the  one  pertaining  to  the  school  building 
and  its  equipment.  In  general  the  school-house 
must  contain  sufficient  class-rooms,  large,  light 
and  well -ventilated  ;  an  auditorium  for  religious 
exercises  and  public  exhibitions ;  arrangements  for  library, 
museums  and  laboratories ;  teachers'  assembly-room,  and  a 
study  for  the  director. 

The  class-rooms,  according  to  official  regulations,  may  not 
sxceed  9.5  metres  long,  by  5.7  metres  to  7  metres  wide,  by  4.1 
metres  to  4.4  metres  high.  The  teachers'  plat- 
:orm  (3.2  metres  long,  1.3  metres  wide,  .2  metre 
Lo  .3  metre  high)  is  placed  at  one  side  of  the 
room.  There  shall  be  a  suitable  desk  for  the  teacher  with  lock- 
drawers.  At  the  side  of  the  platform,  usually  on  an  easel,  is 
the  blackboard  about  3  by  5  feet.  The  main  aisle  between 
;he  platform  and  front  row  of  desks  should  be  at  least  1 
metre  wide ;  aisles  next  to  the  walls  (and  windows)  at  least  .4 
metre  wide  and  the  central  aisle  at  least .  5  metre  wide.  The 
central  aisle  is  unnecessary  except  when  more  than  six  scholars 
would  thereby  have  to  sit  together.  This  gives  3.9  to  4.3 
cubic  metres  air  space  for  the  lower  classes,  and  4.3  to  4.8  for 
the  middle  classes.  Twice  the  above  areas  are  allowed  for 
10 


146 


GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 


drawing,  and  the  auditorium  should  provide  for  6  square 
metres  floor  space  for  each  pupil. 

In  1879  the  government  had  the  space  carefully  measured 
which  is  allotted  to  each  pupil's  desk  in  the  schools  of  Ber- 
lin and  Cologne.  The  city  schools  of  Berlin  showed  the  most 
economical  arrangement  and  their  plan  was  thereupon  recom- 
mended for  general  adoption.  It  is  as  follows  : — 


Wilhelmt-Gym. 

City  Schools, 

City  Schools, 

Berlin. 

Berlin. 

Cologne. 

Ages  and  Classes  of 

Scholars. 

ja 

a 

$3 

5 

J3 

*s 

.c 

& 

** 

•o 

A 

•o 

C- 

* 

I 

+  S 

p 

oT 
Q 

*S 

i 

i 

+s 

VI.  and  V.—  10  to  13  Years  . 

.64 

.81 

.43 

.50 

.71 

.36 

.47 

.81 

.38 

IV.  and  III.-13tol6Years. 

.59 

.85 

.60 

.65 

.73 

.40 

.52 

.84 

.44 

II.  and  I.—  16  to  19  Years.  .  . 

.65 

.89 

.68 

.60 

.79 

.47 

.53 

.84 

.48 

But  all  such  regulations  are  subject  to  modification  at  the 
hands  of  the  supervising  architect  of  the  province.  It  is  his 
business  to  see  that  the  plans  of  local  architects 
are  theoretically  correct  and  practically  useful. 
He  stands  between  the  tax-payers  on  one  side 
and  the  school  children  on  the  other,  and  seeks  to  protect 
both.  Such  an  office,  removed  from  all  political  influence 
and  presided  over  by  a  master  of  his  profession,  is  an  in- 
estimable boon  both  to  the  country  at  large  and  to  the  proper 
administration  of  school  affairs. 

School-houses  are  generally  placed  on  quiet  streets  away 
from  the  stir  and  bustle  of  the  city  and  in  a  locality  furnish- 
ing good  air  and  unobstructed  light.     If  a  suit- 

The  School  Site.       ,  ?       .  ,       , 

able  site  can  be  found  near  the  centre  of  the 
district  population,  it  must  be  given  the  preference.  There 
must  be  ample  play-ground  in  connection  with  each  school, 
although  "  ample "  means  little  more  than  standing  room. 
But  as  the  German  school-boy  does  not  indulge  in  many 
games,  he  does  not  require  a  foot-ball  field  except  for  a  lei- 
surely Spaziergang.  Each  class,  however,  lays  claim  to  a 


FOUNDATION  OF  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  147 

certain  portion,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  these  class 
divisions  staked  off  or  posts  set  up  therein  as  rallying  points. 
The  Turnhalle  (gymnasium),  as  a  rule,  is  on  the  school 
grounds,  but  it  is  not  a  lounging  place  for  pupils  during 
intermissions.  The  Turnhalle  is  intended  for  serious  work  ; 
it  is  the  laboratory  of  physical  culture,  and  as  such  is  in 
charge  of  trained  teachers  who  are  as  jealous  of  the  honour  of 
their  department  as  are  the  teachers  of  Latin.  The  gymnas- 
tic equipment  is  invariably  excellent  and  the  methods  of  in- 
struction all  that  could  be  desired  under  the  prevailing  sys- 
tem. That  the  system  has  its  faults  is  generally  understood 
abroad;  but  its  faults  as  well  as  its  merits  are  so  well  known 
that  I  need  not  discuss  them  here. 

In  recent  years  the  problem  of  lighting  has  received  es- 
pecial attention.  It  is  now  recognized  that  the  window  sur- 
face of  a  room  should  be  at  least  one-fifth  of 
the  floor  space,  that  windows  should  extend  to 
the  ceiling,  and  that  each  pupil  should  have  a  view  of  the 
blue  sky — the  more  the  better.  Yet  there  is  such  extraor- 
dinary increase  in  near-sightedness  from  grade  to  grade,  and 
so  many  suicides  among  school  children,  that  repeated  official 
investigations  have  been  made  in  the  sphere  of  school  hy- 
giene. "  Recent  Prussian  statistics  have  shown  that  in  four 
years  three  hundred  boys  and  four  hundred  and  nine  girls 
under  fifteen  years  committed  suicide.  The  near-sighted- 
ness became  so  serious  that  the  Minister  of  Education,  von 
Gossler,  asked  Dr.  Schmidt-Rimpler,  the  celebrated  ocu- 
list in  Gottingen,  to  draw  up  a  list  of  recommendations  for 
diminishing  near-sightedness,  so  prevalent  in  the  German 
schools.  The  regulations  were  as  follows :  (1)  Teachers 
must  acquire  a  knowledge  of  school  hygiene  ;  (2)  that  a 
medical  attendant  should  be  attached  to  the  school  staff  and 
practically  inspect  not  only  the  school  building,  but  the  in- 
dividual pupils ;  (3)  sending  practical  instructions  to  the 
pupils  to  inform  them  of  the  position  of  the  body  in  reading, 
writing  and  studying  ;  (4)  abolishing  the  afternoon  session 
so  far  as  possible  and  allowing  greater  exercise  in  the  onen 


148  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

air  ;  (5)  abolishing  written  tasks  at  home  ;  (6)  not  allowing 
the  school  course  to  extend  over  too  many  years."  * 

Minute  regulations  are  laid  down  for  heating  and  venti- 
lation.    In  almost  all  of  the  older  buildings  the  rooms  are 
heated  separately  by  means  of  stoves,  and  from 

Ventilation.  .  T  *si   *.•          • 

experience  1  can  say  that  the  ventilation  is 
uniformly  bad.  In  many  of  the  better  buildings  the  stoves 
are  placed  adjoining  the  corridors  and  so  arranged  that  they 
may  be  supplied  with  fuel  and  regulated  from  the  outside  of 
the  room.  A  glass-covered  slit  in  the  wall  also  allows  the 
janitor  to  see  the  thermometer — an  indispensable  part  of  the 
furniture  of  every  German  school-room.  In  this  way  it  is 
possible  to  adjust  the  heating  and  ventilation  without  dis- 
turbing the  class.  The  buildings  constructed  within  the 
last  five  or  ten  years  are  nearly  all  heated  by  steam  or  hot 
water,  and  every  precaution  is  taken  to  secure  proper  venti- 
lation. In  passing,  I  might  mention  such  buildings  as  the 
Weimar  Gymnasium,  Wilhelm's  Gymnasium  in  Cassel  and 
Joachimsthalsches  Gymnasium  in  Berlin  as  being  models  of 
architectural  style  and  hygienic  precaution. 

While  the  foregoing  regulations  regarding  the  construction 
and  equipment  of  school-houses  are  of  a  very  general  nat- 
ure, the  system  of  careful  inspection  renders  impossible  any 
serious  deviation  on  the  part  of  contractors  or  municipalities 
inclined  to  be  penurious.  The  government  has  the  power  to 
compel  alterations  in  plans  or  specifications  when  found  to 
be  defective,  even  though  they  were  at  first  approved.  In 
the  city  schools  the  municipality  must  stand  the  additional 
expense  of  such  alterations.  There  is,  however,  a  small  fund 
at  the  disposal  of  the  provincial  school-board  which  can  ue 
drawn  upon  for  local  benefit,  and  in  some  cases  the  state  does 
what  it  might  compel  the  city  to  do. 

The  question  of  sanitary  school  seats  is  another  much  dis- 
cussed problem.  The  outcome  is  that  a  few  points  of  agree- 
ment have  been  reached.  Especial  emphasis  is  placed  upon 

1  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1889-1890,  p.  338. 


FOUNDATION  OF  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  149 

leaving  very  little  horizontal  distance  between  seat  and  desk. 
Five  centimetres  is  the  maximum.  It  is  also  recommended 
that  desks  be  arranged  in  rows  of  two  each 
with  a  narrow  aisle  between,  and  that  for  each 
school  at  least  three  different  heights  of  seats  be  provided 
— one  for  the  average  for  each  of  the  three  divisions  in  the 
school.  On  the  whole  it  seems  to  me  as  if  the  Germans  with 
all  their  attention  to  school  hygiene  had  not  advanced  far 
beyond  the  theoretic  view  of  the  problem.  Seats  are  fitted 
to  the  average  boy  of  a  grade  whether  that  boy  happens 
to  be  there  or  not ;  the  rest  must  shift  for  themselves.  The 
seating  and  ventilation  of  class-rooms  are,  it  seems  to  me, 
out  of  harmony  with  the  general  equipment  of  German 
schools. 

Perhaps  the  most  unique  feature  of  the  class-room  equip- 
ment, especially  to  an  American  accustomed  to  slate  black- 
boards completely  surrounding  the  room,  is  the 
little  three  by  five  blackboard— the  only  one  in 
the  room — which  stands  at  the  side  of  the 
teacher's  platform.  It  is  made  of  wood  painted  a  dull  black, 
and  is  supported  on  an  easel ;  sometimes  two  blackboards  are 
hung  on  cords  running  over  pulleys  and  so  adjusted  that  they 
can  easily  be  run  up  or  down.  Damp  sponges  are  always  used 
as  erasers,  thus  avoiding  dust.  Each  room  is  supplied  with 
a  stand  for  displaying  maps  and  charts,  and  an  upright  wooden 
case  six  feet  high  by  three  feet  wide  in  which  they  are  stored 
when  not  in  use.  This  case  also  serves  as  a  receptacle  for 
pupils'  note-books  and  other  articles  of  use  in  daily  work.  No 
German  class-room  would  be  complete  without  portraits  of 
the  reigning  sovereigns  and  their  predecessors  for  a  genera- 
tion or  two.  In  Prussia,  Bismarck  and  von  Moltke,  Luther, 
Goethe  and  Schiller  rank  with  the  best.  Pictures  illustrative 
of  the  class  work  find  a  prominent  place.  One  frequently 
finds  displayed  magnificent  representations  of  classical  sub- 
jects, photographs  of  works  of  classic  art  or  charts  prepared 
for  special  purposes.  Some  teachers  make  a  practice  of  ex- 
hibiting large  numbers  of  pictures  and  charts,  which  are  ex- 


(50  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

changed  for  others  from  time  to  time  as  the  work  advances. 
This  is  often  done  to  good  effect  in  history,  geography  and 
nature  study. 

The  corridors  of  a  German  school  building  are  the  meeting 
places  for  classes  during  the  five-minute  intermission  between 
lessons.  The  flooring  in  all  modern  buildings  is  stone  or  tile. 
Rows  of  hooks  are  placed  on  the  side  wall  for  coats  and  caps. 
Lockers  are  too  much  of  a  luxury. 

The  auditorium  is  the  pride  of  the  building.  It  is  large 
enough  to  give  all  the  pupils  seats  and  afford  accommo- 
dations for  a  few  visitors  besides.  Howsoever  plain  the 
rest  of  the  building  may  be,  there  is  always  some  artistic 
effort  here.  In  the  new  buildings  the  decorations  are  really 
lavish.  A  grand  piano  is  the  one  indispensable  article  of 
furniture. 

The  teachers'  assembly-room  is  provided  with  a  long  table 
and  a  suitable  number  of  chairs  and  book-shelves.  The  mu- 
seums are  fitted  out  with  cabinets  and  shelves  for  the  preser- 
vation of  natural  history  specimens.  The  laboratories  are 
each  provided  with  a  long  table  and  seats  about  three  feet 
apart.  Attachments  for  gas  and  water  are  luxuries  not  always 
to  be  had.  Some  of  the  new  schools  have  quite  extensive 
laboratory  facilities,  but,  so  far  as  my  experience  goes,  they 
are  seldom  or  never  used  by  the  students. 

Many  of  the  classical  schools  of  Germany  have  most  excel- 
lent libraries,  in  some  instances  numbering  thousands  of  vol- 
umes. These  are  supported  by  special  endow- 

Libraries.  .      "l  *     * 

ments  which  occasionally  provide  for  a  care- taker 
as  well.  As  might  be  expected,  the  larger  libraries  contain 
many  volumes  of  little  service  at  the  present  time.  Works 
on  classical  subjects,  doctors'  dissertations,  and  sermons  cele- 
brated in  their  day,  are  as  numerous  as  Reports  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  in  some  American  libraries.  Schools 
dependent  upon  special  appropriations  for  the  purchase  of 
books  have  no  great  collections  ;  still  every  school  has  its  li- 
brary, and  it  is  generally  a  good  one.  The  wretched  method 
of  cataloguing  in  vogue  throughout  Germany,  and  the  exces- 


FOUNDATION  OF  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  151 

give  care  to  exclude  everyone  from  handling  or  even  viewing 
the  books  in  the  cases,  practically  annuls  the  greater  part  of 
the  benefit  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  the  books.  I  have 
but  one  judgment  to  pass  upon  the  whole  library  economy  of 
the  Fatherland — public,  school  and  university  alike.  It  is  an 
outrageous  farce.  The  redeeming  feature,  however,  is  the 
uniformly  excellent  collection  of  pedagogical  works  to  be 
found  in  every  secondary  school.  These  books  are  some- 
times in  charge  of  a  member  of  the  faculty  and  placed  in  a 
separate  room.  But  they  are  generally  to  be  found  in  the 
teachers'  assembly-room,  where  they  can  be  easily  consulted 
without  restriction.  A  typical  collection  would  contain  not 
only  works  on  general  pedagogy  but  all  the  most  valua- 
ble reference  books  pertaining  to  the  work  of  each  teacher 
— dictionaries,  atlases,  gazetteers,  commentaries,  standard 
texts,  leading  educational  journals,  and  pedagogical  mate- 
rial such  as  can  be  obtained  in  no  other  country  in  the 
world.  These  collections  are  supported  from  special  grants 
annually  made  by  the  city  or  the  government  but  largely 
augmented  from  the  income  of  special  funds  set  apart  in 
most  schools  for  this  particular  purpose  ;  scarcely  a  second- 
ary school  but  has  a  library  fund  to  which  friends  of  the 
institution  and  graduates  of  the  school  are  expected  to  make 
contributions. 

No  secondary  school  gives  free  tuition.     The  elementary 
schools  of  Germany  are  practically  free  to  all  and  attendance 
is  compulsory  between  the  ages  of  six  and  four-     Compul80ry 
teen.     While  every  child  in  the  state  must  at-         school 
tend  school,  no  stipulations  are  made  as  to  what     Attendance- 
school  he  shall  attend.     Until  the  fourteenth  year,  therefore, 
that  is,  during  the  first  five  years  of  the  secondary  school,  at- 
tendance is  compulsory,  and  the  parents  may  be  fined  for  any 
negligence  on  their  part  resulting  in  non-attendance  of  their 
children.     But  trouble  rarely  arises  on  this  score  in  secondary 
schools.     Regularity  in   attendance  has  become  so  much  a 
matter  of  habit  that  nothing  short  of  serious  illness  keeps  a 
boy  from  school. 


152  GERMAN  HIGHER 

Tuition  fees  are   exceedingly   variable.     According   to  a 

Prussian  ministerial  rescript  of  1892,  all  royal  schools  under 

the  administration  of  the  state  are  subject  to 

Tuition  Fees.        ,  .       .  ,      ,    . 

the  following  schedule  : — 

/3ymnasien,    Realgymnasien,    and     Oberreal- 

schulen 120  marks  ($30)  annually ; 

Progymnasicn,  and  Realprogymnasien .  .  ..100  marks  ($25)  annually; 
Realschulen. 80  marks  ($20)  annually. 

An  effort  is  being  made  to  have  all  city  schools  adopt  the 
government  schedule.  At  present,  however,  city  schools  of 
nine  years'  course  seldom  charge  more  than  100 
marks  for  the  year ;  in  some  cities  the  rates 
are  still  lower,  in  others  somewhat  higher.  For 
instance,  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main  150  marks  is  the  mini- 
mum. Saxony  maintains  about  the  same  fees  as  Prussia. 
The  southern  states  are  lower  on  the  average,  but  because  of 
an  ascending  scale  the  fees  in  the  upper  classes  are  high.  In 
Bavaria  there  is  an  official  regulation  fixing  the  fees  at  30,  36 
and  40  marks  respectively  for  the  three  divisions  of  the  high- 
er schools.  In  TVurtemberg  the  rates  in  most  schools  vary 
from  10  marks  in  the  lowest  classes  to  32  marks  in  the 
highest  classes,  and  rarely  in  any  case  do  they  exceed  70 
marks.  In  the  city  of  Hamburg,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
tuition  fee  at  the  Gymnasium  is  192  marks.  It  is  a  gen- 
eral rule  in  most  German  states  that  foreigners  and  those 
who  do  not  pay  their  full  share  of  the  local  taxes  shall 
pay  extra  school  rates.  Special  consideration  is  shown  to 
younger  members  of  families  already  represented  in  the 
school  by  older  brothers.  The  second  son  generally  gets 
half- rates. 

In  the  government  schools  ten  per  cent,  of  the  places  may 
be  free.     These  free  places  are  usually  granted  on  the  basis  of 
scholarship,  but  deserving  young  men  with  good 
recommendations  are  given  the  preference.  En- 
dowed schools  with  home  accommodations  frequently  have 
scholarships  which  entitle  the  holders  to  both  lodging  and 


FOUNDATION  OF  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  153 

tuition.  Schulpforta,  for  instance,  grants  one  hundred 
and  forty  scholarships  covering  the  entire  expense  for  home 
and  schooling.  There  are  also  great  numbers  of  special 
foundations  which  provide  for  the  partial  maintenance  of 
scholars  in  a  certain  class  or  in  preparation  for  a  particu- 
lar profession,  as  sons  of  teachers  or  clergymen,  boys 
from  the  donor's  home  or  birthplace,  and  those  fitting 
for  the  ministry.  Some  of  the  old  classical  schools  can 
rival  an  English  college  in  the  number  and  value  of  their 
bursaries. 

All  secondary  schools,  as  has  been  said,  charge  tuition  fees, 
but  they  are  by  no  means  self-supporting.  There  is  always  a 
large  deficit  which  is  met  by  the  government, 
by  the  municipality,  or  from  private  funds,  ac- 
cording  to  the  rights  of  patronage  in  the  school. 
On  an  appointed  day  near  the  beginning  of  the  semester  the 
pupils  pay  their  dues  to  a  teacher  or  to  an  authorized  agent 
who  turns  overall  collections  to  the  school  treasury  if  it  be  an 
endowed  school  having  property  of  its  own  to  administer,  to 
the  city  treasury  if  a  city  school,  or  to  the  nearest  govern- 
ment depository  if  a  state  school. 

From  statistics  furnished  by  the  Prussian  government  for 
the  Chicago  Exposition  in  1893,  we  see  the  enormous  growth 
in  school  expenses  in  the  last  twenty  years.  In 

In  Prussia. 

1871  the  total  expenditure  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  higher  schools  in  Prussia  was  7,434,646  marks  ;  in 
1892  it  amounted  to  30,918,840  marks.  Of  this  last-men- 
tioned sum,  5,445,020  marks  came  from  government  grants  ; 
1,903,304  marks,  from  school  property ;  14,327,590  marks, 
from  school  fees,  etc.  ;  7,802,173  marks,  from  local  rates; 
and  the  balance,  from  special  endowments.  It  will  be  seen 
from  this  that  although  the  government  exercises  full  con- 
trol of  the  interna  of  the  higher  schools,  it  pays  only  about 
one-sixth  of  the  expenses.  The  tuition  fees  alone  meet 
nearly  one-half  of  the  total  expenditure. 

That  the  German  schools  are  economically  administered  is 
evident  from  the  fact  that,  in  1892,  25,733,662  marks — more 


154  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

than  five-sixths  of  the  total  cost  of  maintaining  the  higher 
schools — were  expended  in  payment  of  teachers' 

In  the  Empire.         ,      .  r  J 

salaries. 
The  average  expense  per  pupil  in  the  higher  schools  of 

Prussia  was  62.5  marks  in  1871  ;  in  1892  it  was  184.3  marks. 

The  total  expense  per  thousand  of  the  popula- 

*pupn PCr     ^on  ^or  tne  suPPort  °f  the  higher  schools  was 

301.1  marks  in  1871,  and  1,032.2  marks  in  1892. 

In  the  meantime  there  has  been  a  growth  of  but  four  per 

cent,  in  the  population  of  Prussia.     In  the  face  of  such  proof 

no  words  need  be  wasted  in  adducing  evidence  of  Prussia's 

interest  in  secondary  education. 

The  Eeport  of  the  Schul- Deputation  of  Berlin  for  1893-1894 

gives  a  good  idea  of  the  cost  of  the  city  schools.  There  was 
an  attendance  of  4,107  pupils  in  114  classes  of 
the  n  Realschulen  ;  and  in  these  schools  162 
regular  and  51  special  teachers  were  employed. 

The  expense  account  was  as  follows  : — 

Ordinary  expenses 608,427  M. 

Income  from  school  fees 295,788  M. 

Deficit 312,639  M. 

Extraordinary  expenses  : — 

Salaries  of  special  teachers 43, 188  M. 

Care-takers 10,750  M. 

Supply  teachers 1,408  M. 

Teachers  of  religion  for  non-protestants 1,200  M. 

Printing  annual  announcements 2,569  M. 

Building  and  repairs 12,218  M. 

Teachers  of  gymnastics 23,564  M. 


Total  expense  to  city 407,526  M. 

The  six  Hohere  Madchenschulen  had  an  attendance  in 
1893-1894  of  4,297,  divided  among  95  classes  and  in  charge  of 
132  teachers.  The  total  income  was  410,334  marks,  of  which 
407,715  marks  came  from  tuition  fees.  The  ordinary  ex- 
penses were  484,648  marks  ;  supply  teachers,  2,331  marks ; 
religious  instruction  for  non-protestants,  6,480  marks  ;  print- 
ing annual  announcements,  1,247  marks ;  building  and  re- 


FOUNDATION  OF  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 


155 


pairs,  13,141  marks;  supervision  of  play  -  groiwids,  1,832 
marks.  This  gave  a  total  expense  of  509,679  marks,  and  left 
a  deficit  of  99,345  marks  to  be  borne  by  the  city. 

The  city  of  Berlin  also  supports  201  slementary  schools,  a 
school  for  the  blind,  a  school  for  the  deaf,  and  several  nine- 
year  higher  schools  which  are  under  the  ju- 
risdiction of  the  provincial  school-board.  The 
cost  to  the  city  in  1893-1894  of  the  schools  under 
the  administration  of  the  Sclml-Deputation — making  allow- 
ances for  items  placed  in  two  accounts — may  be  summarized 
as  follows  : — 


Kinds  of  Schools. 

Number 
of  Schools. 

Number 
of  Classes. 

Attend- 
ance. 

Income  : 
Marks. 

Outlay  : 

Marks. 

Expense 
to  City  : 
Marks. 

Realschulen    

11 

114 

4,107 

295.788 

6.5,297 

339509 

Hohere  M  ildchen- 
sc/tulen  

6 

95 

4.307 

410,334 

484,648 

74,314 

Vollcsscftulen  

201 

3,371 

179,621 

121,844 

9,420,149 

9,298,305 

School  for  Deaf  
School  for  Blind  

1 
1 

148 
53 

719 

53,198 

5ti.2til 
82,310 

55,542 
29,112 

Totals  

220 

3,580 

188.236 

881.883 

10,678,1*55 

9,796,782 

Berlin  is  exceptionally  liberal  in  the  support  of  girls' 
schools,  but  Americans  or  Englishmen  will  find  it  hard  to 
understand  the  reason  for  expending  150,000  marks  more  on 
the  boys  than  on  the  girls,  when  the  girls  pay  nearly  twice  as 
much  in  fees  as  the  boys  pay.  But  girls  grow  only  into 
women  ;  boys  become  citizens  and  soldiers. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — Wiese,  Das  hohere  Schulwesen  in  Preussen ; 
Wiese-Kiibler,  Gesetze  und  Verordnungen  ;  Kethwisch,  Deutschlands 
hoheres  Schulwesen  im  neunzehnten  Jahrhundert,  Berlin,  1893 ;  Kehr- 
bach,  Monumenta  Germanics,  Pcedagogica,  Vols.  I.,  IV.,  and  VIII. ; 
Statistisches  Jahrbuch  der  hdheren  Schulen  Deutschlands,  1897-1898; 
Centralblatt  fur  die  gesammte  Unterrichts-  Verwaltung  in  Preussen. 
Berlin.  See  also  Bibliography  of  recent  works,  p.  455. 


CHAPTER  VIH 

RULES,  REGULATIONS  AND  CUSTOMS 

THE  school-year  tin  Prussia  and  in  the  other  northern  and 
central  German  states  is  from  Easter  to  Easter,  the  semesters 

beginning  at  Easter  and   Michaelmas.     Large 
School-Year,     institutions  with  parallel  classes  from   top  to 

bottom  frequently  admit  new  pupils  both  in  the 
spring  and  in  the  fall.  This  gives  them  two  sets  of  classes  a 
half-year  apart — the  one  designated  Easter  classes  (Oster- 
Oberprima,  Oster-Untersecunda,  etc.);  the  other  Michaelmas 
classes.  But  in  Baden,  Alsace-Lorraine  and  Wiirtemberg  the 
school-year  begins  the  middle  of  September  and  extends  to 
the  middle  of  July ;  in  Bavaria  from  the  10th  of  September 
to  the  14th  of  July. 

The  historic  connection  of  church  and  school  is  clearly 
evidenced  in  the  modern  custom  of  having  school  vacations 

at  the  time  of  the  chief  church  festivals.     In 

Prussia  and  most  of  the  northern  states  two 
weeks  are  given  at  Easter,  about  one  week  at  Whitsunday, 
four  weeks  in  the  summer — mostly  in  July — two  weeks  at 
Michaelmas,  and  two  weeks  at  Christmas.  Bavaria  has  no 
vacation  at  Whitsunday,  and  only  one  week  at  Christmas. 
This  makes  possible  eight  weeks  of  rest  in  the  summer.  The 
precise  dates  of  vacations  are  set  by  the  school  authorities  in 
each  state  at  the  beginning  of  each  school-year.  The  con- 
venience of  the  scholars  and  avoidance  of  the  neat  of  summer 
are  the  main  considerations.  In  northern  Germany  it  is  no 
hardship  to  continue  school  work  into  August ;  the  univer- 
sities uniformly  require  it.  In  South  Germany  the  heat  is 

166 


RULES,   REGULATIONS  AND  CUSTOMS  157 

more  intense  and  of  longer  duration.  But  everywhere  it  is 
left  to  the  discretion  of  head-masters  to  excuse  classes  when 
from  excessive  heat  or  cold  some  injury  might  result  to  the 
pupils.  Most  schools,  on  this  account,  are  closed  afternoons 
four  or  five  times  in  the  summer. 

The  general  ministerial  orders  are  to  the  effect  that  the 
year's  vacations  should  not  exceed  ten  and  one-half  weeks,  ex- 
clusive of  special  holidays,  such  as  the  church  festivals  of 
Epiphany,  Candlemas,  Annunciation,  Corpus  Christi,  Peter- 
Paulstag  (June  29th),  All  Saints,  Conception  of  the  Virgin 
(December  8th) — all  of  which  are  observed  in  Roman  Catholic 
schools  ;  the  Reformationsfest,  which  is  observed  in  all  prot- 
estant  schools ;  the  birthdays  of  the  reigning  sovereigns, 
Sedan  day,  and  school  celebrations. 

The  morning  session  in  the  secondary  schools  begins  regu- 
larly at  seven  o'clock  during  the  summer  and  closes  at  eleven. 
In  the  afternoons,  except  Wednesdays  and 

0    ,  ,  .  ,  ..     ,      .  ,,     J         .          Daily  SeBslons. 

Saturdays,  which  are  entirely  free,  the  session 
is  from  two  to  five.  During  the  winter  the  morning  session 
begins  at  eight  o'clock  and  continues  until  twelve.  This 
gives  seven  fifty-five  minute  periods  a  day  besides  intermis- 
sions. The  long  afternoon  session  is  much  disliked  ;  and  in 
many  schools  there  is  a  disposition  to  lengthen  the  morning 
session  and  do  all  of  the  heavy  work  before  noon,  thus  leaving 
for  afternoon  the  lighter  work  such  as  drawing,  singing,  gym- 
nastics and  free  electives.  The  school  authorities,  however, 
are  not  disposed  to  favour  this  plan,  believing  that  continuous 
work  for  five  hours  makes  too  serious  demands  upon  the 
strength  of  the  scholars.  As  a  result  compromises  are  fre- 
quent. For  example,  the  TJiomasschule  in  Leipsic  leaves 
four  afternoons  of  the  week  practically  free,  following  five 
hours  of  work  in  the  morning.  On  the  other  two  days  there 
are  four  hours  of  work  in  the  morning  and  three  in  the  after- 
noon, beginning  at  three  o'clock.  The  city  Gymnasium  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Main  makes  Wednesday,  Friday  and  Satur- 
day afternoons  free,  following  five  hours  of  work  in  the 
morning. 


158  GERMAN  HIO HER  SCHOOLS 

It  is  required  that  at  least  forty  minutes  of  the  day  shall  be 

given  up  to  pauses.     Ordinary  pauses  are  five  minutes,  but 

one  of  fifteen  minutes'  duration  must  be  given 

Pauses. 

at  the  end  of  every  second  hour.  During  the 
longer  intermissions  all  scholars  must  leave  the  rooms  so  that 
there  may  be  a  thorough  ventilation  by  the  opening  of  the 
windows.  Pupils  generally  pass  out  into  the  school-yards 
during  the  longer  intermissions,  where  they  walk  about  spend- 
ing the  time  in  conversation.  Seldom,  indeed,  is  it  that  one 
sees  any  games  or  play  indulged  in.  Teachers  are  appointed 
for  the  supervision  of  the  corridors  and  school-grounds  as 
regularly  as  for  class  recitations.  This  is  the  more  necessary 
inasmuch  as  teachers  exercise  no  supervision  in  their  own 
rooms  or  classes.  In  fact,  the  rooms  belong  to  the  classes, 
not  to  the  teachers  ;  it  is  only  for  drawing,  singing  and  science 
work  that  the  class  seeks  the  teacher.  At  assembly,  order  is 
expected  upon  the  ringing  of  a  warning  bell ;  the  second  bell 
is  the  signal  for  the  entrance  of  the  teacher,  who  generally 
spends  the  intermission  in  the  teachers'  assembly-room.  As 
he  appears  the  class  immediately  rises  and  remains  standing 
until  the  command  to  sit  down  is  given.  This  little  act  of 
courtesy  does  not  seem  to  be  performed  perfunctorily  and  is 
so  much  a  matter  of  habit  that  classes  instinctively  stand 
when  anyone  enters  the  room,  no  matter  if  a  recitation  be  in 
progress.  Teachers  seldom  occupy  their  class-rooms  during 
intermission.  Pupils  who  desire  special  information  must 
make  known  their  wants  before  the  class  is  dismissed,  or  else 
seek  the  teacher  during  office  hours.  The  teacher  is  gener- 
ally the  first  one  out  of  the  room. 

The  consequence  of  the  rigid  class  system  in  vogue  in  all 

German  secondary  schools  is  that  each  pupil  has  a  lesson 

every  hour  of  the  school-day.     No  time  for 

Home  Study.  J    .  .  111  j   -i. 

study  is  allowed  during  the  school  hours,  and  it 
is  an  easy  matter  for  teachers  to  assign  so  much  work  to  be 
done  at  home  that  the  strength  of  the  pupils  may  be  over- 
taxed. For  more  than  fifty  years  this  problem  of  the  over- 
burdening of  scholars  has  been  uppermost  in  the  minds  of 


RULES,   REGULATIONS  AND  CUSTOMS  159 

both  educators  and  parents.  An  article  entitled  Zum  Schutze 
der  Gesundheit  in  den  Sclmlen,  published  in  1836  by  an  emi- 
nent physician  (Dr.  Lorinser),  called  attention^to  the  matter. 
So  much  discussion  ensued  that  the  Minister  of  Education 
was  obliged  in  the  following  year  to  issue  a  rescript,  which 
was  supported  by  a  special  order  of  the  king,  materially  re- 
ducing the  amount  of  home  study. 

Twenty  years  later  the  question  again  arose  and  a  still 
further  reduction  was  made.  In  the  Prussian  Parliament  of 
1883-1884  the  question  came  to  open  debate  and 

Overwork 

in  consequence  it  was  thoroughly  considered 
from  all  sides.  The  government  found  itself  an  interested 
party  since  in  some  provinces  eighty  per  cent,  of  secondary- 
school  graduates  were  said  to  be  unqualified  for  military  service. 
Subsequent  investigation  proved  that  this  percentage  was 
placed  too  high  ;  nevertheless  it  was  clear  that  the  secondary 
schools  were  making  serious  inroads  on  the  health  of  their 
charges.  In  Prussia  the  number  of  suicides  of  males  between 
the  ages  of  ten  and  twenty  years  increased  from  one  hundred 
and  sixty-five  in  1869  to  two  hundred  and  sixty  in  1881.  Al- 
though it  was  shown  that  the  rate  of  increase  was  not  dis- 
proportionate to  the  increase  in  the  school  population  and 
to  the  total  number  of  suicides,  nevertheless  so  large  a  num- 
ber gave  sufficient  cause  for  apprehension.  The  question  of 
insanity  among  students  was  also  raised,  but  no  satisfactory 
statistics  could  be  had  in  the  matter.  Near-sightedness  was 
found  to  be  the  one  especial  evil  that  could  be  attributed 
directly  to  the  schools.  Many  investigations  were  under- 
taken definitely  to  learn  the  extent  of  the  evil,  which  every- 
one knew  existed  in  a  serious  form. 

It  was  found  that  near-sightedness  increased  not  only  from 
class  to  class  but  that  its  increase  could  be  noted  from  the  be- 
ginning of  a  school-year  to  its  close.     In  the 
Frankfort   Gymnasium  four  per  cent,  of  the       E  ^  °° 
scholars  were  found  to  be  myopic  in  the  lowest 
class  and  sixty-four  per  cent,  in  Prima.     Of  1.000  newly  en- 
listed soldiers  examined  in  Munich  only  two  per  cent,  of  the 


160  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

country  lads  from  the  Volksschulen  were  found  to  be  near- 
sighted. Common  labourers  trained  in  the  city  schools 
showed  from  fpur  to  nine  per  cent.;  clerks,  merchants,  book- 
keepers, etc..,  forty-four  per  cent. ;  graduates  of  Realschulen, 
fifty-eight  per  cent.;  and  graduates  of  Gymnasien,  sixty-five 
per  cent.  Careful  investigation  did  not  substantiate  all  the 
charges  that  had  been  made  against  the  secondary  schools,  but 
it  was  clearly  demonstrated  that  of  all  institutions  the  classi- 
cal schools  were  the  greatest  sinners  in  this  respect.  It  was 
found,  too,  that  the  number  of  scholars  subject  to  headache, 
nose-bleed,  and  general  anaemia  was  remarkably  abnormal. 

The  careful  attention  given  to  this  matter  by  the  Prussian 
Parliament  again  gave  it  national  importance.  Elaborate 
reports  were  made  by  the  Medical  Department 
on  wavs  an^  means  of  improving  the  conditions 
of  the  school  work.  Need  of  better  lighted 
class-rooms,  proper  ventilation  and  sanitary  precautions,  were 
emphasized.  The  main  pedagogical  problem,  however,  was 
left  for  the  Education  Department  to  solve.  Excessive  home 
study  was  everywhere  thought  to  be  the  main  cause  of  the 
trouble.  A  ministerial  rescript  of  1883  prescribed  the  limits 
of  home  study  for  Sexta  and  Quinta  at  one  hour  per  day,  or 
six  hours  per  week ;  for  Quarto,  and  Untertertia,  two  hours 
per  day,  or  twelve  hours  per  week  ;  for  Obertertia  and  Unter- 
secunda,  two  and  one-half  hours  per  day,  or  fifteen  hours  per 
week ;  for  Obersecunda  and  Prima,  three  hours  per  day,  or 
eighteen  hours  per  week.  The  new  Lehrplan  of  1892  adopts 
this  schedule  and  cautions  the  teachers  not  to  overstep  the 
bounds.  Inasmuch  as  scholars  must  spend  on  an  average 
from  five  to  six  hours  a  day  in  recitation,  this  gives  a  total 
day's  work  of  six  to  nine  hours  according  to  age.  The  prep- 
aration of  lessons,  therefore,  in  the  American  fashion  is  ut- 
terly impossible.  In  fact  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  recita- 
tion in  our  sense  of  the  word  in  a  German  school.  What  we 
call  recitation .  periods  they  speak  of  as  Unterrichtsstunden 
(Instruction  hours).  The  teacher  must  lead ;  the  pupils 
follow. 


RULES,   REGULATIONS  AND  CUSTOMS  161 

According  to  the  latest  Prussian  Lehrplan,  home  work 
should  consist  principally  in  rearranging  and  rewriting  notes 
taken  in  class,  memorizing  material  indispens- 
able for  class  work,  and  reviewing  and  fixing 
in  the  mind  what  has  already  been  learned  in 
class.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  custom  varies  widely  concerning 
the  nature  and  amount  of  home  study.  Teachers  who  are 
not  wholly  in  sympathy  with  modern  notions  continue  to 
assign  supplementary  work  to  be  done  at  home,  and  so  long 
as  parents  do  not  complain  there  is  little  probability  of  its 
reaching  the  ears  of  the  head-master.  A  special  book  is  kept 
in  every  class-room  in  which  the  lessons  assigned  in  each  sub- 
ject are  noted.  This  was  hit  upon  as  a  method  of  giving 
precise  information  on  what  is  actually  required  from  the  vari- 
ous classes.  These  books  are  at  all  times  open  to  the  inspec- 
tion of  the  directors  and  the  teacher  who  is  especially  charged 
with  the  supervision  of  the  class.  The  influence  exerted  by 
these  regulations  upon  methods  of  teaching  the  various  sub- 
jects will  be  treated  of  later  in  separate  chapters. 

Every  effort  has  been  made  of  late  years  to  control  pupils 
by  moral  suasion.     So  far  as  possible  the  individuality  of  the 
teacher  is  given  full  play.     There  is  no  doubt 
that  since  1870  a  new  type  of  school-master  has 
come  in,  due  in  great  measure  to  the  military  spirit  that  is 
in  the  air.     Young  men  now  are  desirous  of  becoming  officers, 
and  the  presence  of  teachers  having  the  military  training 
and  the  ability  to  command  men  gives  great  leverage  for 
good  discipline. 

Every  inducement  is  offered  the  intending  teacher  to  qual- 
ify himself  in  military  tactics.  The  time  that  must  elapse 
before  a  certificated  teacher  can  receive  an  ap- 

.  Reserve  Officers. 

pomtment  is  ample  for  performing  the  extra 
military  duty  required  of  those  who  aspire  to  become  reserve 
officers.  Those  who  show  marked  proficiency  in  their  first 
year  of  service  are  permitted  to  advance.  They  are  given 
special  advantages  if  they  desire  promotion,  and  are  allowed 
to  demonstrate  their  ability  to  command.  After  two  years 
u 


162  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

of  intermittent  practice,  candidates  may  present  themselves 
to  the  officers  of  some  regiment  for  election.  Everything  is 
taken  into  account — education,  training,  appearance,  char- 
acter, family,  along  with  military  ability.  If  chosen,  the 
young  man  is  at  once  admitted  to  the  most  select  circle  in 
German  society  and  the  one  most  jealous  of  its  honour. 

To  have  officers  of  the  Reserve  or  Landwehr  in  a  school  is 
equivalent  to  saying  that  there  are  just  so  many  able  dis- 
ciplinarians, perfect  gentlemen,  men  of  high 

rheTM^tary  moral  character  and  ambitions,  in  the  teaching 
corps.  They  give  tone  to  a  school  and  set  up 
a  standard  of  discipline  that  bids  fair,  in  a  few  years,  to  be- 
come the  ideal  type.  The  five  or  six  thousand  military  offi- 
cers in  the  German  schools  are  not  there  to  no  purpose ;  they 
indicate  a  new  tendency — one  that  will  put  the  teacher's 
profession  alongside  of  any  in  the  land.  The  military  circles 
and  the  clergy  may  no  longer  consider  the  school-master  be- 
neath their  notice,  for  the  school-master  of  to-day  may  be  the 
leader  of  a  company  in  the  war  of  to-morrow.  This  new 
spirit  is  the  surest  guarantee  of  a  new  system  of  discipline  in 
the  schools.  It  is  indeed,  military— sharp,  quick,  incisive — 
but  the  teacher  has  learned  to  obey  and  to  be  obeyed  ;  he 
knows  how  to  control  himself,  and  his  control  over  his  pupils 
is  a  matter  of  course.  He  is  always  clear  and  pointed  in  his 
teaching.  There  is  nothing  uncertain  in  anything  he  does. 
An  extended  acquaintance  with  German  teachers  and  per- 
sonal observation  of  class-room  methods  lead  me  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  proverbially  stern  discipline  and  apparent 
lack  of  sympathy  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  are  really  not 
burdensome  from  the  stand-point  of  the  students.  In  fact, 
these  characteristics  are  distinctly  the  right  thing  in  the  eyes 
of  the  German  school-boy,  who,  as  I  have  already  said,  is 
thoroughly  imbued  with  the  military  spirit  and  consequent- 
ly is  not  averse  to  having  it  manifested  in  the  school-room. 

All  this  pertains  to  the  younger  generation  of  teachers. 
The  older  teachers  are  oftentimes  careless  and  easy-going; 
sometimes  cross  and  irritable.  I  have  seen  a  master  leave 


RULES,   REGULATIONS  AND   CUSTOMS  163 

the  rostrum  two  or  three  times  during  a  single  recitation 
to  box  the  ears  of  ten-year-old  boys  with  the  teacher's  book 
because  of  their  inability  to  analyze  rapidly 

J  J  V      J    The  Older  Typ«. 

enough  problems  in  percentage.  1  have  seen, 
too,  the  whole  front  of  a  large  iron  stove  and  all  the  window- 
shades  in  the  class-room  leave  their  places  in  a  manner  seem- 
ingly quite  accidental  during  the  process  of  a  single  recita- 
tion. I  afterwards  observed,  however,  that  the  shades  had 
very  suspicious-looking  strings  tied  to  them,  and  I  more  than 
suspect  that  the  stove  had  been  previously  trained  to  perform 
its  part.  It  is  my  opinion  that  school-boys  in  Germany  have 
about  the  same  motives  to  mischief  as  boys  in  other  countries, 
and  that  the  incompetent  teacher  is  perhaps  more  inclined  to 
be  brutal  in  his  treatment  of  a  class  than  would  be  possible 
in  an  American  school. 

The  supervision  of  pupils  and  their  discipline  is  not  con- 
fined to  conduct  on  the  school  premises,  but  has  to  do  with 
their  entire  life  outside  of  school  ;  nor  arepa- 
rents  permitted  to  interfere  to  any  considerable 
extent.  A  parent  has  no  right  to  remove  a 
child  from  school  simply  because  the  regulations  do  not  suit 
him.  It  is  presumed  that  the  school  is  in  charge  of  men  who 
know  better  how  to  train  children  than  parents  do.  The 
school-master  is  in  possession  of  professional  knowledge,  and 
the  whims  of  parents  are  not  allowed  to  militate  against  him. 

Each  pupil  on  entering  a  secondary  school  is  placed  in 
charge  of  a  teacher,  usually  the  one  who  has  most  to  do  with 
the  instruction  of  the  class  (Ordinarius).  The 
pupil  is  expected  to  consult  his  class-master  in 
all  matters  pertaining  to  his  school  work  and 
to  follow  his  advice  at  all  times.  Non-resident  students  must 
live  in  families  or  boarding-houses  approved  by  the  director 
of  the  school,  and  the  director  reserves  the  right  to  make 
such  changes  in  the  location  of  students  and  the  conduct  of 
boarding-houses  as  may  seem  desirable  to  him  at  any  time. 
Non-residents  may  not  change  their  lodgings  without  the 
approval  of  the  director.  They  are  not  permitted  to  live  at 


164  GERMAN  UIQHER  SCHOOLS 

public-houses  or  to  dine  at  hotel  tables.  The  school  is  ex- 
pected to  look  after  the  conduct  of  pupils  at  all  times  out  of 
school.  Teachers  have  the  right,  and  it  is  expected  they 
will  perform  the  duty,  of  making  special  investigations  of 
the  habits  of  students  whom  they  suspect  of  being  faithless 
to  the  regulations  of  the  school.  In  extreme  cases  the  police 
are  required  upon  notification  from  the  director  to  report  on 
the  habits  of  those  under  suspicion. 

Every  pupil  must  be  at  school  at  least  fifteen  minutes  be- 
fore the  beginning  of  each  session,  and  in  his  seat  at  the  first 

stroke  of  the  bell.     In  case  of  illness  he  must 
Absence"     a^  ouce  n°tify  his  Ordinarius  either  by  mail  or 

by  special  messenger  of  his  absence,  and  when 
he  returns  to  school  he  must  present  to  his  Ordinarius  and 
to  each  of  his  teachers  a  writtenjexcuse  from  his  parents. 
The  Ordinarius  may  excuse  the  pupil  for  an  occasional  les- 
son, but  permission  for  an  absence  of  a  day  or  more  must  be 
obtained  from  the  director. 

Pupils  are  required  to  attend  all  religious  exercises  in  the 
school,  such  as  morning  exercises  (usually  held  in  the  larger 

schools  only  on  Mondays),  and  the  communion 
Attendance,      service,  which  is  administered  in  all  evangelical 

schools  once  or  twice  a  year.  Church  attend- 
ance on  Sundays  is  also  obligatory  for  all,  whatever  may  be 
the  inclinations  of  parents.  For  pupils  of  about  fourteen 
there  is  a  special  confirmation  class  which  is  taught  by  the 
village  pastor  or  some  clergyman  appointed  for  the  purpose, 
and  at  Easter  all  members  of  this  class  are  expected  to  be 
publicly  confirmed.  It  is  not  absolutely  obligatory,  but  the 
custom  is  so  general  that  it  may  be  said  to  be  universal.  T'ue 
festivities  connected  with  the  event  are  sufficient  inducement 
to  win  over  those  not  otherwise  persuaded.  For  the  Volks- 
schuler  it  means  that  the  school-days  with  their  accompany- 
ing prohibitions  and  restraints  are  over.  Good  Friday  is  the 
last  day  of  the  old  regime ;  the  Saturday  before  Easter,  the 
first  of  the  new  order.  It  is  a  novel  experience  for  a  foreigner 
to  see  these  boys  on  a  Saturday,  dressed  in  their  best  and  for 


XULES,   REGULATIONS  AW)  CUSTOMS  165 

the  first  time  sporting  gloves  and  cane,  streaming  out  to  sub- 
urban beer-gardens  to  spend  the  day  in  mild  carousal.  It 
means,  tec,  for  the  secondary-school  pupil  greater  freedom 
than  he  has  hitherto  enjoyed ;  he  may  now  smoke  to  his 
heart's  content.  The  casual  observer  finds  it  difficult  to  see 
much  that  is  religious  in  the  German  mode  of  confirmation, 
and  I  much  doubt  if  the  average  German  school-boy  finds  in  t 
it  more  than  the  removal  of  certain  scholastic  disabilities. 

The  use  of  tobacco  among  pupils  of  the  four  lower  classes 
is    altogether  prohibited  ;   upper-classmen  may  smoke,  but 
not  on  the  streets  or  in  public  places.    Scholars      conduct  of 
must  not  loiter  on  the  way  to  or  from  school,    Pupils  out  of 
and  must  "avoid  excessive  noise  or  disturbance 
on  the  streets.     They  are  not  allowed  to  visit  public-houses, 
confectionery  shops,  beer-gardens,  theatres  or  balls,  except  in 
company  with  their  parents.     Non-residents  must  secure  per- 
mission from  their  tutors  or  school  principals  before  going  to 
public  resorts. 

The  opinion  is  growing  in  Germany  that  excessive  beer 
drinking,  especially  as  indulged  in  by  university  students,  is 
a  dangerous  custom.  Experts  pronounce  it  the 

,.~  »     •  •  .  Drinking 

most  prolific  cause  of  insanity  among  young  customs! 
men,  and  a  whole  train  of  other  diseases  follows 
in  its  wake.  And  it  is  no  wonder  that  health  is  endangered 
where  the  custom  prevails  of  putting  down  ten  or  fifteen 
quarts, of  beer  at  a  sitting — a  not  unusual  practice  of  the  uni- 
versity student — even  though  no  intoxication  results.  But 
university  students  know  no  law  but  that  of  tradition.  With 
the  pupils  of  the  secondary  schools  it  is  different ;  they  are 
'under  the  control  of  masters.  Students  above  the  age  of 
fifteen,  however,  may  congregate  at  a  respectable  house  with- 
out supervision,  but  must  not  remain  later  than  nine  o'clock 
in  summer  or  eight  o'clock  in  winter.  On  special  occasions 
the  whole  evening  may  be  spent  in  such  merriment  with  the 
permission  of  the  faculty  and  under  the  supervision  of  the 
director  or  one  of  the  teachers.  Wine,  beer  and  coffee  are 
the  only  drinks  in  which  they  are  supposed  to  indulge.  It  is 


166  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

the  constant  care  of  teachers  and  directors  of  the  secondary 
schools  to  see  that  their  scholars  do  not  fall  into  the  company 
of  bad  women  —  a  task  that  is  by  no  means  easy  anywhere  on 
the  continent.  Hence  there  must  be  no  loitering  on  the 
streets,  and  attendance  at  legal  trials  and  public  meetings  is 
forbidden. 

Students  may  not  use  the  public  libraries,  or  receive  papers 
and  magazines  in  their  own  names,  or  publish  any  school 
journal.  No  pains  are  spared  that  students 
reac^  onty  that  which  will  be  of  advantage  in 
their  school  work.  For  three-quarters  of  a  cen- 
tury it  has  been  the  policy  of  German  educators  either  to  re- 
fuse students  admission  to  the  circulating  libraries,  or  else  to 
exercise  strict  control  over  what  may  be  loaned  them.  Hid- 
den in  this  desire  to  control  the  outside  reading  of  pupils  there 
is  a  two-fold  purpose:  first,  that  their  minds  may  not  be 
i  poisoned  by  trashy  literature  ;  and  second,  to  prevent  young 
\  people  from  imbibing  political,  social  or  religious  heresies. 
In  view  of  the  demonstrations  of  the  last  few  years  indicating 
socialistic  tendencies  among  university  students,  is  it  proble- 
matical as  to  which  of  these  aims  is  looked  upon  as  the  more 
important?  A  university  student  is  a  free  lance  over  whom 
it  is  difficult  to  exercise  any  control.  But  the  pupils  in  the 
secondary  schools  are  completely  in  the  hands  of  the  govern- 
ment throughout  what  is  considered  their  plastic  age,  and 
the  discipline  of  these  schools  is  regulated  quite  as  much  with 
regard  to  the  avoidance  of  all  influences  tending  to  undermine 
the  patriotic  and  religious  character  of  school  instruction  as 
to  the  suppression  of  positive  evils. 

The  rule  forbidding  student  publications    was    directed 
originally  against  a  paper  started  in  1875  which  was  intended 
to  have  a  wide  circulation  among  secondary- 
school  students,  and  in  which  they  might  air 


their  grievances  and  express  opinions  on  matters 
pertaining  to  school  life.  Since  German  teachers  are  state 
officials  and  the  school  a  state  institution,  it  is  readily  seen 
that  political  complications  might  easily  arise.  The  paper 


RULES,   REGULATIONS  AND  CUSTOMS  167 

was  promptly  suppressed,  and-  though  attempts  have  since 
been  made  to  evade  the  ministerial  edict,  student  journals  are 
unknown  except  in  the  form  of  an  occasional  bulletin  pub- 
lished for  some  school  festival.  There  is  great  temptation  on 
the  part  of  students  in  the  upper  classes  of  the  secondary 
schools  to  ape  university  customs  in  forming  clubs  and 
societies,  but  no  such  organization  can  be  legally  established 
without  the  approval  of  the  school  authorities.  The  univer- 
sity fraternities  have  given  the  government  trouble  enough, 
I  take  it,  to  prevent  the  hatching  of  a  younger  brood. ' 

The  impression  is  abroad  that  German  teachers  are  severe 
disciplinarians.  That  severity  is  tempered  with  mercy  and 
judiciously  administered  will  be  apparent,  I 
think,  to  all  who  note  the  following  official 
gradations  in  punishments  : — 

1.  Warnings  to  the  pupil  (a)  in  private,  (b)  before  class, 
(c)  from  the  faculty.  » 

2.  Assignment  to  a  specialj)lace  in  the  class-room  or  other- 
wise degrading  the  pupil  in  class  work. 

3.  Detention  after  school,  which  occurs  under  supervision 
and  in  order  to  make  up  deficiencies  (but  the  pupil  must  not 
be  deprived  of  his  midday  intermission).     The  director  is  in- 
formed in  every  instance. 

4.  Incarceration,  always  with  a  definite  amount  of  work  to 
do  which  must  have  a  direct  relation  to  the  class  work.     This 
punishment  can  be  assigned  only  by  the  faculty  in  conference 
and  for  a  period   not  exceeding  six  hours.     Most  of  the 
schools  have  cells  for  this  purpose  ;  but  nearly  all  of  the  new 
buildings  are  constructed  without  them,  thus  showing  the 
decadence  of  the  practice. 

5.  Corporal  punishment,  which  is  not  to  be  regarded  as 
proper,  but  is  allowable  in  three  lower  classes  in  cases  where 
immediate  action  is  necessary.     In  every  instance  the  teacher 
must  announce  it  the  same  day  to  the  director.     Fines  are 
under  no  circumstances  allowed  in  higher  schools. 

If  these  punishments  do  not  suffice  to  bring  recalcitrant 
scholars  into  line,  nothing  else  remains  but  removal  from  the 


168  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

school.  In  this  case  the  various  methods  employed  are  :  (1) 
Consilium  abeundi  which  is  to  be  communicated  to  the  pupil 
in  the  presence  of  the  assembled  teachers,  a 
Parent  or  guardian  being  at  once  notified  ;  (2) 
quiet  suspension,  in  which  the  pupil's  father  is 
advised  to  remove  him  at  once  for  a  definite  time  ;  (3)  public 
expulsion,  whereupon  the  provincial  school-board  must  be 
immediately  informed.  Dismissal  from  the  school  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  faculty  as  a  whole.  In  case  of  public  expulsion 
all  the  higher  schools  of  the  province  are  officially  notified 
that  the  pupil  concerned  must  not  be  admitted  to  any  school 
in  good  standing.  In  case  of  the  suspension  or  expulsion  of 
a  non-resident  the  police  department  is  also  notified  at  once 
that  the  pupil  is  no  longer  under  the  supervision  of  the  school. 
The  certificate,  which  every  pupil  must  be  given  on  leaving 
school,  will  also  state  the  fact  that  he  has  been  removed  for 
cause.  This  of  itself  is  generally  quite  sufficient  to  prevent 
admission  to  another  school.  In  case  of  suspension  no  notice 
of  any  kind  is  given — not  even  to  classmates  unless  they  have 
a  knowledge  of  the  offence. 

The  annual  program  of  the  Friedriclis-  Gymnasium,  Berlin, 
for  1895-1896  contains  the  following  summary  of  rules  for  the 
guidance  of  parents  : — 

"  Applications  for  admission  of  new  pupils  at  Michaelmas, 
1896,  will  be  received  on  and  after  May  1st ;  for  admission  at 
Easter,  1897,  on  and  after  November  1,  1896. 
The  application  fee  is  three  marks,  which  will 
be  deducted  from  the  tuition  of  the  first  quar- 
ter if  the  pupil  enters  on  time  ;  in  case  there  is  no  vacancy 
in  the  class  for  which  the  pupil  is  found  to  be  fitted,  the  fee 
will  be  returned  ;  but  should  the  pupil  not  enter  the  class 
to  which  he  is  assigned,  or  fail  to  appear  at  the  opening  of 
the  semester,  the  fee  will  be  turned  into  the  fund  for  poor 
scholars. 

"  The  pupil  will  bring  with  him  on  the  day  of  his  admission 
to  the  school,  (1)  the  certificate  of  his  application,  (2)  certifi- 
cate of  birth,  (3)  baptismal  certificate  (if  pupil  is  a  Protes- 


RULES,  REGULATIONS  AND  CUSTOMS  169 

tant),  (4)  certificate  of  vaccination  (if  pupil  is  over  twelve 
years  old,  also  the  certificate  of  revaccinatiou),  (5)  certificate 
of  honourable  dismissal  from  school  previous- 
ly attended,  and  (6)  the  tuition  fee  for  the  first     Admission, 
quarter. 

"  The  tuition — 27.5  marks  for  the  Volksschule,  32.5  marks 
for  the  Gymnasium — is  payable  strictly  in  advance.  Herr 
Nautsch,  Collector,  will  be  at  the  Gymnasium  on  a  day  to 
be  announced  to  receive  the  fees. 

"  Applications  for  free  schooling  must  be  addressed  to  the 
city  council  (Magistral)  and  handed  unsealed  to  the  director  of 
the  Gymnasium  before  the  first  day  of  March 

t    a  u  T*        t  •\-A-A 

or  of   September.     If  a  free  place  is  desired 

for  a  third  or  fourth  son,  it  will  be  necessary  to  show,  besides 
the  need  of  assistance,  that  the  other  sons  are  students  in 
good  standing  of  Berlin  secondary  schools. 

"  Scholars  are  not  permitted  to  appear  at  unseasonable 
hours  or  to  congregate  on  the  streets.  The  class-rooms  are 
opened 'fifteen  minutes  before  the  opening  of  the  session. 

"  All  scholars  must  be  revaccinated  when  twelve  years  old. 
If  the  operation  is  unsuccessful,  it  must  be  repeated  each  year 
until  the  certificate  of  the  physician  shows 

mi       /  f      Vaccination. 

three  successive  failures.     Ihe  free  services  of 

the  schooJjDhysiciau  are  recommended  for  this  purpose. 

"  Parents  of  our  scholars  are  requested  to  give  careful  at- 
tention to  the  following  official  regulations  relative  to  con- 
tagious diseases,  and  to  observe  them  implicitly 
in  case  of  need  : 

"  The  diseases  which,  because  of  their  infec- 
tious character,  are  specially  to  be  guarded  against  are  :  (1) 
cholera,  dysentery,  measles,  scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  small- 
pox, typhus  and  intermittent  fever ;  (2)  typhoid,  contagious 
eye  diseases,  itch  and  whooping-cough  (so  long  as  it  is  spas- 
modic). 

"  Scholars  suffering  with  the  above  diseases  are  excluded 
from  the  school.  Children  in  the  same  family  with  persons 
suffering  from  a  disease  included  in  the  first  list,  (1),  must 


170  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

have  a  physician's  certificate  to  the  effect  that  they  are  in 
no  danger  of  infection  before  they  will  be  received  fn  school. 
Scholars  thus  excluded  from  school  will  not  be  re- 
admitted  under  the  normal  period  for  each  dis- 
ease (scarlet  fever  and  small-pox,  six  weeks ;  mea- 
sles, four  weeks),  nor  without  the  statement  from  a  physician 
that  all  danger  is  past  and  the  proper  disinfection  completed. 

"  Scholars  are  forbidden  to  leave  school  at  holiday  periods 
(especially  before  the  summer  vacation)  before  instruction 
closes,  without  permission  of  the  director. 

"  Parents  should  countersign  the  weekly  reports  sent  them 
and  take  note  of  their  sons'  work. 

"  Parents  are  requested  not  to  send  anonymous  communi- 
cations to  the  director,  but  to  consult  with  him  personally  on 
all  matters  pertaining  to  the  welfare  of  the  school  and  its 
pupils.  Promotions  are  made  by  vote  of  the  entire  faculty, 
and  the  results  are  under  no  circumstances  subject  to  change. 

"  Visiting  of  beer-gardens,  confectioners'  shops  or  similar 

resorts  is  not  permitted  to  scholars,  except  in  company  with 

responsible  guardians.     Smoking  on  the  streets 

Public-Houses.          *•  -vi  r*f        n 

or  in  public  places  is  unconditionally  prohib- 
ited. Parents  will  be  notified  of  infractions  of  these  rules  ; 
and  in  case  of  repetition  the  pupil  will  be  immediately  dis- 
missed from  the  school. 

"  A  written  notice  of  the  intention  to  withdraw  from  the 
school  should  be  given  to  the  director  before  the  end  of  the 
semester  ;  otherwise  the  parent  will  be  holden  for  the  tuition 
of  the  following  quarter.  At  the  same  time  the  director 
should  be  informed  of  the  school  the  boy  will  next  attend,  or 
of  his  future  occupation. 

"  Vacations  for  1896  are  appointed  as  follows  : 

Easter — Saturday,  March  28th,  to  Tuesday, -April  14th. 

Whitsunday — Friday,  May  22d,  to  Thursday, 
May  28th. 

Summer — Friday,  July  3d,  to  Tuesday,  August  llth. 

Michaelmas — Saturday,  October  3d,  to  Tuesday,  October 
13th. 


RULES,   REGULATIONS  AND  CUSTOMS  171 

Christmas — Saturday,  December  19th,  to   Tuesday,  Jan- 
uary 5th." 

Pupils  nine  years  of  age  are  admitted  to  the  lowest  class  of 
the  secondary  school  upon  examination  in  (1)  reading  and 
writing  the  German  and  Roman  scripts  ;  (2) 
spelling  ;  (3)  parts  of  speech  and  analysis  of 
simple  sentences ;  (4)  simple  arithmetical  oper- 
ations involving  the  four  fundamental  principles — addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication  and  division  of  simple  numbers  ; 
(5)  important  Biblical  stories.  No  restrictions  are  placed 
either  by  state  or  city  upon  the  selection  of  the  school  which 
a  boy  will  attend  ;  that  is  regulated  entirely  by  the  wishes  of 
his  parents  and  the  accommodations  of  the  school.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  neither  royal  nor  municipal  authorities  are 
bound  to  provide  facilities  for  the  secondary  education  of  all 
who  may  desire  it.  A  certain  number  of  secondary  schools 
have  been  founded.  They  are  provided  with  a  certain  number 
of  teachers,  and  are  intended  for  a  certain  number  of  pupils  ; 
but,  if  these  do  not  satisfy  the  requirements,  there  is  no 
redress  for  those  excluded.  Applications  for  admission  to 
some  of  the  larger  city  schools  must  be  made  long  in  advance. 
The  less  fortunate — sometimes  because  less  influential — must 
put  up  with  what  can  be  had. 

The  schools  of  Germany,  from  the  VolJcsschulen  to  the  uni- 
versity, are  open  to  any  person  of  good  character  who  can 
satisfy  the  conditions  for  entrance.  But  the 
reader  should  not  make  the  mistake  of  infer- 
ring that  class  distinctions  are  of  little  importance.  Social 
rank  is  by  no  means  a  dead  letter  in  the  Fatherland.  The 
young  man  or  woman  who  enters  into  manual  service  is  en- 
rolled as  a  servant  on  the  books  of  the  police  and  of  the  state 
insurance  department.  Henceforth  there  is  no  breaking 
with  the  past ;  to  rise  above  the  present  rank  unaided  is  well- 
nigh  a  social  impossibility.  And  in  the  schools  class  dis- 
tinctions, while  not  obtrusive,  are  nevertheless  closely  drawn. 
I  have  seen  the  Crown  Prince  of  Weimar  occupying  a  place 
on  the  benches  of  Prima  in  a  public  Gymnasium  ;  but  on 


172 


GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 


the  books  of  that  school  his  name  appeared  as  a  prince  of  the 
royal  blood.  Some  of  his  classmates  were  set  down  as  peas- 
ant born.  Until  a  student  has  attained  a  profession  of  his 
own,  the  Stand  of  his  father  follows  him  everywhere  he  goes. 
When  he  enters  school  his  social  rank  is  noted  first  of  all  ;  in 
every  certificate  of  merit  it  appears  again  ;  it  is  demanded  on 
admission  to  the  university,  and  comes  up  again  even  in  the 
Vita  attached  to  his  doctor's  dissertation.  And  every  time 
he  changes  his  residence,  or  stops  at  a  hotel ;  whenever  he 
pays  his  taxes,  or  gives  Ms  signature  to  any  official  document ; 
in  short,  when  he  is  born,  marries  or  dies,  or  does  aught  else 
between  times,  somebody's  Stand,  if  not  his  own,  must  be 
sponsor  for  him. 

I  have  not  been  able  to  get  statistics  of  the  social  rank  of 
the  scholars  in  the  secondary  schools  ;  but  the  records  of  the 
Prussian  universities  will  show,  I  think,  the 
general  make-up  of  the  Gymnasien.  During 
the  five  years  preceding  1891,  according  to 
official  reports,  there  were  12,630  German  students  in  the 
Prussian  universities ;  of  these,  3,244  were  sons  of  univer- 
sity graduates.  The  following  table  throws  additional  light 
on  the  professions  chosen  by  gymnasial  graduates,  as  shown 
by  their  university  studies  : 


Social  Rank  of 
Students. 


University  Departments. 

Number  of 
Students. 

Number  Whose 
Fathers   were 
Un  i  versity 
Graduates. 

Per  Cent  from 
Learned  Class. 

Theolojry  (Protestant)  

2,562 

70» 

27.67 

Theology  (Catholic)  

581 

22 

3.79 

Law  

2,348 

873 

37.18 

Medicine  

3,471 

831 

23.94 

3  668 

809 

2-2.06 

(a)  Philology  and  History        

1,622 

327 

20.16 

(6)  Mathematics  and  Science  

1,076 

230 

21.38 

It  is  evident  that  the  future  officials  and  jurists  of  Prussia, 
more  than  other  professions,  are  to  be  influenced  by  family 
tradition.  On  the  other  hand,  the  clergy  and  leaders  of  the 
catholic  church  will  enjoy  less  of  inherited  strength,  or  more 


RULES,  REGULATIONS  AND   CUSTOMS 


173 


of  independent  thought — as  one  prefers  to  consider  it — than 
their  associates.  The  philosophical  department,  from  which 
the  secondary  teachers  are  recruited,  stands  lower  in  point  of 
social  rank  than  any  of  the  other  leading  faculties. 

In  a  country  where  church  and  state  are  so  closely  united 
as  in  Prussia,  and  where  besides  the  state  church  there  are  one 
or  two  other  important  religions,  the  attitude 
of  these  bodies  toward  the  schools  is  always  a 
grave  consideration.  The  Prussian  constitu- 
tion guarantees  freedom  of  religious  belief  and  denies  to  no 
one  the  privileges  of  schooling.  There  are  schools  for  the 
Protestants,  schools  for  Catholics,  schools  for  Jews  and 
mixed  schools.  The  secondary  schools  of  Prussia  in  1891- 
1892  had  an  attendance  divided  as  follows  among  the  various 
confessions  : — 1 


Religious 
Preferences. 


KINDS  OF  SCHOOLS 

SCHOLARS. 

Protestant. 

Catholic. 

Jew. 

Hoh.  Biirgerncftulen  

Per  Cent. 
6,901       75.0 

Per  Cent. 
1,527        16.H 

Per  Cent. 
751         8.2 

Realsehnlen  

4,295        67.2 

1,155        18.1 

913        14.3 

Oberrtaltchuleii  

3,4!>7        78.4 

629        14.1 

299          6.7 

Realprogymnaalen  

7,076        76.2 

1,482        16.0 

494          5.3 

Iifalgymnasie.il 

19.935        78  1 

3.146        12.3 

2,358          9.3 

Progymncutien  

2,282        49.9 

1,948        42.6 

337         7.4 

Oymnatien  

52,800       67.8 

17,918        23.0 

7,015         9.0 

Totals  

96,786        70.5 

27,805        20.3 

12,167         8.9 

The  population  of  Prussia,  according  to  religion,  is  19,232,- 
449  Protestants  (67.2  per  cent.),  10,252,818  Catholics  (34.2 
per  cent.)  and  372,059  Jews  (1.24  per  cent.).  From  a  com- 
parison of  these  percentages  with  the  figures  above  given, 
it  is  clear  that  the  Catholics  are  least  interested  in  the 
higher  education.  The  astonishing  persistency  of  the  Jews, 
however,  in  pushing  their  way  into  the  high  places  is  a 
source  of  much  anxious  thought  in  the  kingdom.  In  corn- 


Arranged  from  statistics  given  in  the  Centralblatt. 


174  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

parison  to  their  numbers,  they  send  to  the  universities  eleven 
times  as  many  students  as  the  Catholics  send,  and  six  times 
as  many  as  the  Protestants.  This,  unquestionably,  is  a  seri- 
ous problem,  since  race  hatred  is  growing  constantly  more 
menacing,  and  one  that  some  day  will  cause  a  deal  of  trouble, 
if  the  present  system  is  maintained. 

'There  is  another  way  of  getting  at  the  character  of  the  stu- 
dents who  attend  the  secondary  schools.     It  is  well  known 

that  graduates  of  the   Realsclmlen,  as  a  rule, 
occtTatfon      en^er  business  or  some  phase  of  commercial  or 

technical  life.  With  graduates  of  the  Gymna- 
sien  it  is  otherwise ;  of  the  83,880  graduates  of  Prussian 
Gymnasien  and  Realsclmlen  between  1868  and  1891,  62,236 
(74.2  per  cent.)  entered  the  learned  professions.  Gymnasial 
graduates  numbered  71,226  ;  and  of  these  58,373  (81.95  per 
cent.)  entered  the  learned  professions,  2,498  (3.51  per  cent.) 
the  technical  professions  and  10,355  (14.54  per  cent.)  other 
professions.  Of  the  realgymnasial  graduates  30  per  cent, 
entered  learned,  19  per  cent,  technical  and  51  per  cent,  all 
the  other  professions.  These  figures  exhibit  conclusively  the 
aim  of  these  schools.  Not  all  who  enter,  to  be  sure,  ever  see 
the  end.  More  than  four-fifths  of  those  who  begin  fall  by  the 
wayside  ;  forty  in  every  one  hundred  are  satisfied  with  the 
privilege  of  one-year  military  service  ;  the  remainder  (39  per 
cent.)  do  not  reach  that  standard.  It  remains  to  be  said, 
therefore,  that  while  the  chief  aim  of  the  secondary  schools 
is  preparation  for  the  university,  they  are  really  fitting  the 
great  majority — 85  per  cent,  and  more — of  their  pupils  for  a 
practical  life.  And  a  doubtful  preparation  it  is. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — CentralUatt  fiir  die  gesammtc  Unterrichts- 
Verwaltung  in  Preussen ;  Statistisch.es  Jahrbuch  der  hoheren  Schulen 
Deutschlands,  1897-1898;  Wiese-Kiibler,  Gesetze  und  Verordnungcn ; 
Lehrplane  und  Lehraufgaben  fiir  die  hoheren  Schulen,  Berlin,  1893; 
Instruction  fiir  die  Directoren  der  hoheren  Unterrichtsanstalten  der 
Provinz  Brandenburg  (amtlich),  Berlin,  1868 ;  Instruction  fur  die 
Leh  rer  und  Ordinarien  an  den  hoheren  Unterrichtsanstalten  der  Provinz 
Brandenburg  (amtlich),  Berliu,  1868. 


CHAPTER  IX 

EXAMINATIONS   AND   PRIVILEGES 

THE  aim  of  the  higher  schools  in  Germany  is  to  give  an 
Allgemeine  Bildung,  but  it  should  be  clearly  understood  that 
this  liberal  education  is  intended  at  the  same 
time  to  be  the  first  stage  in  a  practical  prepara- 
tion  for  life.  Every  higher  school  is  at  once  a 
place  of  liberal  culture  and  a  fitting  school  for  some  specific 
vocation  or  profession.  The  union  of  these  two  ideals  has 
gradually  come  in  the  course  of  the  present  century  to  be  well 
understood  and  everywhere  recognised  as  inevitable.  This 
fact  is  responsible  for  much  of  the  confusion  and  uncertainty 
to  be  met  with  in  the  educational  system. 

Theoretically  and  historically,  too,  in  a  degree,  the  second- 
ary education  of  Germany  is  absolutely  divorced  from  the  prac- 
tical affairs  of  life.    "  First  make  a  man,  and         Uniteg 
let  the  man  look  out  for  himself,"  is  the  motto   Theoretical  and 
that  perhaps  best  expresses  the  idea  of  the  old 
school-masters.    "  In  making  a  man,  make  one  that  will  be 
good  for  something,"  is  the  principle  underlying  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  higher  schools  at  the  present  time.     School 
curricula  and  pedagogical  theories,  as  a  rule,  emphasize  the 
cultural  side ;  governmental  regulation  and  the  official  man- 
agement of  school  affairs  emphasize  the  practical  side. 

The  system  of  examinations  and  privileges  in  operation  in 
all  Germany  bears  striking  testimony  to  the  fact  that  the 
higher  schools  have  a  special  mission  in  combining  liberal 
culture  and  practical  ability. 

In  the  first  place,  the  very  method  of  conducting  examina- 

175 


176  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

tions  is  designed  to  test  the  power  to  use  knowledge  rather 
than  the  extent  of  information.  It  is  not  so  much  what  a 
pupil  has  learned  that  counts,  as  what  he  can  do 
Examinations  With  ^  J  no^  Wissen,  so  much  as  Konmn.  That 
incubus  of  written  examinations,  which  weighs 
so  heavily  on  British  schools,  and  which  is  so  popular  in  some 
parts  of  America,  particularly  in  the  State  of  New  York 
and  some  Canadian  provinces,  would  never  be  tolerated  for  a 
day  in  Germany,  not  even  by  the  most  conservative  pedagogue 
of  the  old  school.  They  would  say  that  by  such  means  you 
may  gauge  more  or  less  accurately  of  a  pupil's  knowledge  and 
skill  in  displaying  it,  but  it  leaves  untouched  the  very  facts 
which  an  educator  most  wants  to  know — the  desire  for  further 
study,  power  of  will,  love  of  home  and  country,  religious 
feelings  and  the  appreciation  of  the  good,  the  true  and  the 
beautiful.  Not  what  a  man  has,  but  what  he  is,  is  the  true 
test  of  educational  progress.  "As  a  man  thiuketh  in  his 
heart,  so  is  he." 

Next,  it  will  be  observed  that  with  the  completion  of  suc- 
cessive grades  in  the  higher  schools  certain  privileges  are 
granted  which  determine  admission  to  all  the 
higher  vocations  and  professions.  This  makes 
not  only  each  school,  but  each  grade,  a  step  in 
a  general  course  of  professional  or  business  training.  The  suc- 
cessful working  of  such  a  plan  requires  that  young  men  on  leav- 
ing school  shall  know  something  of  practical  worth  and  that 
they  have  the  ability  to  use  it  in  further  preparation  for  their 
respective  careers  in  life.  The  student  who  completes  a  gym- 
nasial  course  must  have  definite  knowledge  of  those  subjects 
which  he  will  need  in  the  university  ;  all  students,  no  matter 
what  their  future  occupations,  need  to  be  put  in  touch  with 
the  best  that  the  national  life  and  thought  has  to  offer.  The 
schools  are  confined  to  a  definite  curriculum,  which  is  pre- 
scribed by  the  state  ;  its  workings  are  supervised  by  the  state  ; 
and  the  state  examines  the  results,  and  points  out  the  possible 
lines  of  future  advancement.  But  the  way  in  which  this  is 
done  is  specially  instructive. 


EXAMINATIONS  AND  PRIVILEGES  177 

A  pupil's  promotion  within  the  school  depends  upon  (1) 
the  quality  of  his  daily  work,  (2)  private  and  public  exam- 
inations and  (3)  the  judgment  of  his  instruc- 
tors.     The    kind  of    school    in   which   he  is    c**"iia'™'of 

Promotion. 

entered  and  the  length  of  his  course  therein 
determine  the  possibilities  of  future  study  and  occupation. 

A  teacher  is  required  to  note  the  daily  work,  conduct,  in- 
dustry and  attention  of  his  pupils,  and  from  time  to  time  to 
grade  them  accordingly.     This  should  be  done 
whenever  the  teacher  has  seen  enough  of  his     Th<;  Marking 

System. 

pupil  to  enable  him  to  form  sound  judgment, 
say,  daily  in  the  lower  classes,  where  the  teacher  has  better 
opportunity  to  judge,  and  at  least  once  a  week  in  any  case. 
No  checking  of  errors  as  they  occur,  and  no  marking  by  per- 
centages, is  allowed  under  any  circumstances.  The  teacher 
who  should  attempt  to  note  in  class  each  mistake  made  by  his 
pupils,  as  though  his  business  were  to  find  errors  rather  than 
give  instruction,  would  be  excluded  from  a  German  school  as 
unfit  for  his  office.  The  designation  of  grades  which  are  offi- 
cially recommended  for  use  in  the  higher  schools  is  as  follows  : 
"  Very  Good,"  "  Good,"  "  Satisfactory,"  "  Barely  Satisfac- 
tory," "  Unsatisfactory."  The  value  of  written  work,  as  class 
exercises,  notes  and  essays,  is  estimated  in  the  same  way  and 
noted  in  the  class  records.  At  the  end  of  each  quarter,  as  a 
rule,  and  necessarily  at  Easter,  Michaelmas,  and  Christmas, 
the  reports  of  all  teachers  are  gathered  in  and  entered  in  the 
individual  record-books  of  the  pupils.  The  pupil's  book  gives 
the  name  of  the  pupil,  the  class  to  which  he  belongs,  the 
number  of  pupils  in  the  class,  his  industry  and  attention,  his 
marks  in  the  various  studies,  list  of  punishments  received, 
notice  of  promotion  and  a  space  for  remarks,  followed  by  the 
signatures  of  the  director  and  class-master  (Ordinarius). 
After  this  report  has  been  countersigned  by  the  parent  or 
guardian  of  the  pupil,  it  is  returned  to  the  school,  and  placed 
among  the  school  archives.  It  belongs  to  the  school,  and  not 
to  the  pupil.  The  parent's  signature  is  evidence  that  he  has 
seen  the  official  record  of  his  son's  work,  and  is  fully  acquainted 
is 


178  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

with  the  school's  estimate  of  his  progress.  On  leaving  school 
a  pupil  receives  a  certificate  showing  his  standing  at  the  time  ; 
his  record-book,  as  I  have  said,  remains  in  the  school.  And 
under  no  circumstances  is  it  permissible  to  give  a  pupil  his 
relative  standing  in  class.  Each  person  is  entitled  to  a  certifi- 
cate showing  what  he  has  done,  but  he  may  not  receive  any 
information  concerning  the  work  of  others. 

At  the  close  of  the  school-year,  in  faculty  meeting,  the 
standings  of  all  pupils  are  considered,  with  a  view  to  promo* 
tion.  Inasmuch  as  a  strict  class  system  pre- 
vails in  German  schools,  individuals  must  be 
promoted  with  the  class  or  remain  where  they 
are  at  least  another  semester.  Occasionally  a  pupil  will  be 
allowed  to  make  up  some  deficiencies  during  vacation.  As  a 
rule,  however,  pupils  are  promoted  on  the  basis  of  a  "  Satis- 
factory" standing  in  the  more  important  subjects.  Under 
this  category  are  to  be  understood,  of  course,  in  the  Gymna- 
sien,  German,  Latin  and  Greek. 

Examination  in  the  higher  schools  are  of  two  kinds :  (1) 

private,  (2)  public.     The  private  examinations  include  the 

entire  round  of  individual  and  class  tests  which 

Examination  are  considered  in  the  reports  to  parents,  and 
which  have  any  bearing  on  promotion.  Public 
examinations  are  for  the  sake  of  appearances — a  concession  to 
the  curiosity  and  pride  of  parents.  The  aim  is  thereby  to 
give  parents,  patrons  and  friends  of  the  school  some  idea  of 
school  life  and  school  work.  These  exhibitions  are  given  at 
the  end  of  semesters,  the  one  at  Easter  being  of  chief  impor- 
tance. The  director's  report  of  the  work  of  the  past  year,  the 
Schulproyram  or  Jahrcsbericht,  extends  a  formal  invitation 
to  the  Schlussfeier .  The  public  examinations  are  conducted 
by  the  regular  teachers  of  the  various  classes,  and  continue 
about  half  an  hour  each.  Drawings,  note-books,  and  other 
handiwork  of  the  class  are  on  exhibition.  Then  follows  a 
program  of  declamations,  readings  and  music,  in  which  the 
entire  school  takes  part. 

These  public  tests  are  generally  severely  criticised  as  being 


EXAMINATIONS  AND  PRIVILEGES  179 

superfluous  and  an  unnecessary  strain  upon  pupils.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  conceded  that  the  school  owes  some- 
thing to  the  patrons,  as  well  as  to  its  pupils. 
The  schools  are  public  institutions,  supported  by  R  ^bh<: 
public  funds,  and  the  public  has  a  right  to  know 
something  of  the  inner  workings  of  the  system.  It  should  be 
remembered,  too,  that  these  days  are  the  only  ones  in  the  en- 
tire year  when  parents,  or  anyone  else  except  state  officials, 
can  gain  admission  to  Prussian  schools,  except  by  special  per- 
mission of  the  Minister  of  Education.  But  such  an  argument 
does  not  appeal  strongly  to  a  Prussian  school -master.  Many 
schools — the  city  Gymnasien,  of  Berlin,  for  example — have 
abolished  the  public  examinations,  and  others  are  contem- 
plating similar  action.  In  the  Karolinenschule  of  Eisenach 
no  public  examinations  have  been  held  since  1890.  In- 
stead, one  entire  week  toward  the  end  of  the  last  quarter  is 
set  aside,  during  which  parents  are  invited  to  hear  instruction 
in  all  classes  which  their  children  attend.  The  plan  has 
met  with  marked  success  in  Eisenach  ;  but  Eisenach  is"  not 
in  Prussia. 

Private  examinations  in  course  are  conducted  by  the  teachers 
at  their  discretion.  For  these  each  school  is  free  to* make  its 
own  regulations.  The  only  ones  of  exceptional 
significance  are  the  intermediate  examination 
(Abschlusspriifung)  at  the  end  of  the  sixth 
school -year,  and  the  leaving  examination  (Abgangs-,  Abituri- 
enten-,  Reife-  or  Maturit&tsprilfung)  at  the  end  of  the  ninth 
year. 

The  Maturitatsprilfung  was  introduced  in  Prussia  in  1788, 
reaffirmed  in  1812,  and  made  obligatory  for  admission  to  the 
university  and  the  learned  professions  in  1834.    j^^^tion  of 
The  plan  has  subsequently  been  adopted  by  all       thermal 
the    German   states.     The  far-reaching  conse-     Examination- 
quence  of  this  examination  made  it  necessary  that  it  be  con- 
ducted with  extreme   care,  and  according  to   an   approved 
norm.     It  should  be  remembered  that  while  the  state  exer- 
cises strict  control    over  the  higher  schools,    Lernfreiheit 


180  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

rules  in  the  universities.  A  university  student  may  study 
what  he  will,  when  he  will,  or  need  not  study  at  all.  If  he 
registers  for  one  lecture  a  week,  pays  his  fees  and  conducts 
himself  with  ordinary  propriety,  no  questions  will  be  asked. 
He  may  spend  one  semester,  or  twenty,  in  the  university ;  it 
is  nobody's  business  but  his  own.  It  not  infrequently  hap- 
pens that  students,  especially  of  the  wealthier  class,  spend 
two  or  three  years  in  idleness  bordering  on  dissipation.  The 
strict  discipline  of  the  Gymnasium  and  the  long  and  contin- 
uous course  of  study  are  frequently  urged  as  an  excuse  for 
license  in  the  university.  The  state,  however,  relies  for  sup- 
port upon  its  educated  youth.  Social  influence  and  political 
intrigue  would  soon  sap  the  vitality  of  the  entire  civil  service, 
were  not  bulwarks  erected  by  the  state  itself  to  withstand  the 
tides  of  incompetency.  These  safeguards  are,  first  of  all,  the 
leaving  examination,  and,  in  the  second  place,  special  exam- 
inations before  royal  commissions,  for  entrance  to  the  various 
professions  and  administrative  posts. 

The  Maturitdtsprilfung  is  the  first  real  test  of  individual 
ability.  The  Staatsexamen  comes,  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
events,  after  about  five  years  of  professional  study.  The  one 
discloses  signs  of  promise  in  the  youth  ;  the  other  tests  the 
strength  of  manhood. 

It  has  been  urged,  inasmuch  as  the  teachers  in  the  higher 
schools  are  state  officials — men  well  educated  and  profession- 
Point  of  contact  aUy  trained,  and  on  the  grounds,  too,  that  the 

between  state  schools  themselves  are  state  institutions,  there- 
fore the  state  should  accept  the  leaving  exam- 
ination as  evidence  of  fitness  for  admission  to  professional 
study.  In  answer,  it  has  been  pointed  out  that  school -masters 
belong  to  a  single  profession,  and  that  they  are  presumably 
unacquainted  with  the  inherent  needs  of  the  other  professions, 
much  less  familiar  with  the  essential  requirements  of  the 
practical  administrative  affairs  of  the  state.  Common  sense, 
accordingly,  demands  that  the  state  be  represented  in  the  ex- 
amination, to  offset  local  influences.  The  representative  of 
the  state  on  these  occasions  does  not  usurp  the  functions  of 


EXAMINATIONS  AND  PRIVILEGES  181 

the  school,  but  appears  rather  as  a  counsellor  and  friend. 
Very  cohsiderable  power  is  given  the  school  faculty,  both  as 
to  who  shall  be  admitted  to  examination  and  what  shall  be 
the  character  of  the  examination  itself.  In  this  way  there  is 
secured  a  happy  blending  of  local  government  and  state  con- 
trol. 

The  purpose  of  the  leaving  examination  is  to  ascertain 
whether  the  candidate  has  accomplished  the  work  of  Prima. 
All  Gymnasien  which  have  been  approved  by 
the  Minister  of  Education  have  the  right  of 
holding  this  examination.  The  subjects  for 
examination  are  religion,  German,  Latin,  Greek,  French, 
history  and  geography,  mathematics  and  physics.  English 
and  Hebrew  are  optional  subjects.  The  examination  com- 
mittee consists  of  a  commissioner  appointed  by  the  provincial 
school-board,  who  is  chairmanTthe  Director  of  the  Giimna- 
sium,  and  the  regular  teachers  of  Oberprima.^  The  repre- 
sentative of  the  provincial  sfhnol-hqpfl  is  usually  the  Ober- 
schulrat,  who  is  inspector  of  the  school.  In  case  he  cannot 
act,  the  Director  of  the  Gymnasium  is  usually  commissioned 
to  fill  his  place.  Patrons  of  city  and  endowed  schools  also 
have  the  right  to  name  one  member  of  the  exanrining  com- 
mittee. Their  representative  is  generally  elected  for  a  term 
of  years,  and  has  a  vote  on  all  matters. 

Absolute  secrecy  is  enjoined  on  all  members  of  the  examin- 
ing board.  Admission  of  a  scholar  is  seldom  permitted  ear- 
lier than  the  second  semester  of  Oberprima. 
Application  for  examination  is  to  be  made  in 
writing  three  months  before  the  end  of  the 
semester.  The  director  then  places  before  the  committee 
these  applications,  together  with  a  complete  record  of  all 
candidates  from  the  date  of  their  admission  to  the  school 
and  such  other  information  concerning  their  work,  char- 
acter and  future  occupation  as  may  seem  to  him  desir- 
able. The  committee  is  empowered  to  recommend  for  ad- 
mission to  the  examination  all  those  whom  they  unanimously 
find  to  be  "  satisfactory  "  in  scholarship  and  morals.  This 


182  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

report  is  thereupon  transmitted  to  the  provincial  school- 
board.  It  must  show  with  regard  to  each  candidate  :  his 
name,  age  and  place  of  birth  ;  the  religion,  occupation  and 
residence  of  his  father ;  his  deportment,  industry  and  stand- 
ing throughout  his  school  course,  and  his  choice  of  future 
occupation.  Notice  must  be  given  at  the  same  time  of  all 
cases  rejected  by  the  committee,  and  the  reasons  for  such  ac- 
tion. This  done  satisfactorily,  the  provincial  school  inspector 
designates  those  applicants  who  may  come  up  for  the  final 
examination. 

The  final  examination  is  both  written  and  oral.  As 
required  in  the  Gymnasium,  the  written  examination  in- 

Sub'ectsof  du(ies  (1)  a  German  essay;  (2)  a  translation 
Examination  in  from  German  into  Latin  ;  (3)  a  translation  from 

Gymnasium.  the  Qree]^  and  (4)  froin  the  French  into  Ger- 
man ;  and  (5)  four  problems  in  mathematics — one  each  from 
plane  geometry,  solid  geometry,  trigonometry  and  algebra. 
The  oral  examination  includes  Latin,  Greek,  religion,  history 
and  mathematics. 

In  the  written  examination  all  candidates  in  the  same  sub- 
ject are  examined  at  the  same  time.  The  questions  set  must 
be  of  a  nature  familiar  in  Prima  and  of  no 

rher^rg"tte  greater  difficulty.  They  must  not,  however, 
be  so  like  those  already  studied  that  the  test 
would  lose  the  character  of  independent  work.  Passages 
for  translation  are  to  be  taken  from  works  similar  to  those 
read  in  class,  but  previously  unseen  by  the  candidates.  The 
examination  paper  as  a  whole  is  made  up  after  the  following 
fashion  :  Each  teacher  of  Prima  gives  the  director  a  list  of 
three  questions  in  each  subject.  These,  if  approved  by  the 
director,  are  then  sent  to  the  provincial  school  inspector,  who 
makes  up  the  paper  from  the  questions  submitted.  But  if 
the  questions  proposed  do  not  seem  adapted  to  the  purpose, 
if  they  are  not  up  to  the  standard,  or  if  there  is  any  other 
reason  why  they  should  not  be  used,  the  inspector  may  alter 
them  or  replace  them  entirely.  The  director  and  the  teach- 
ers are  placed  upon  their  honour  not  to  disclose  the  questions 


EXAMINATIONS  AND  PRIVILEGES  183 

for  the  examination  or  take  unfair  means  to  prepare  their 
classes  for  them. 

The  examination  is  held  in  a  room  of  the  Gymnasium  and 
under  the  supervision  of  a  member  of  the  examining  commit- 
tee. The  time  allowed  is  five  (morning)  hours 

'     .  ' &/         ,        How  Conducted. 

for  the  German  essay  ;  five  (morning)  hours  for 
mathematics ;  three  hours  each  for  Greek  and  French  ;  two 
hours  for  Latin.  No  intermissions  are  allowed  except  in  case 
of  the  mathematical  examination,  which  may  be  cut  in  two. 
In  translating  from  a  foreign  language,  lexicons  are  allowed  ; 
and  for  the  mathematical  work,  a  table  of  logarithms.  All 
papers,  whether  complete  or  not,  scrap-work  included,  must 
be  handed  in  at  the  expiration  of  the  period.  Any  attempt 
at  deception  during  the  examination  is  severely  punished, 
even  to  the  extent,  if  necessary,  of  exclusion  from  all  future 
examinations.  The  extreme  penalty,  however,  requires  the 
approval  of  the  Minister  of  Education. 

The  papers  in  each  subject  are  read  by  the  teachers  con- 
cerned, errors  are  noted,  and  the  grades  "  Very  Good," 
"Good,"  "Satisfactory,"  "Barely  Satisfae- 

»         «TT        «,*      i.         i»          •          /  *•         Marking  Papers. 

totj  or  "  Unsatisfactory  '  assigned,  according 
to  the  merits  of  the  papers.  All  marks  are  then  brought  to- 
gether, and  a  decision  is  reached  by  the  committee  in  con- 
ference on  the  admission  of  candidates  to  the  oral  examination. 
A  detailed  report  is  then  made  to  the  provincial  school-board. 
The  original  papers  and  each  set  of  answers  are  sent  in,  to- 
gether with  a  statement  from  the  director  of  the  reference 
books  used,  and  that  further  than  this  no  assistance  of  any 
kind  has  been  given.  The  papers  are  then  examined  by  the 
inspector,  who  approves  the  markings  or  makes  such  changes 
as  seem  to  him  necessary. 

Candidates  who  are  not  excused  on  account  of  very  su- 
perior work  in  the  written  test  are  now  required  to  take  the 
oral  examination  in  the  presence  of  the  provin- 

£  TheOralTeet 

cial  school  inspector,  who  sets  the  day  to  suit 

his  own  convenience,  and   the    assembled    teachers  of    the 

school.     All   the  records  of  the   candidates   during  Prima, 


184  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

their  note-books,  essays  and  other  written  work,  are  on  ex- 
hibition, and  may  be  made  the  basis  of  examination.  Ten 
candidates  at  a  time  is  the  usual  number  admitted  to  exam- 
ination. Classes  above  ten  are  divided  and  the  groups  ex- 
amined on  different  days.  The  inspector,  who  is  chairman  of 
the  committee,  arranges  the  order  of  subjects  and  designates 
the  time  for  each.  No  helps  of  any  kind  are  allowed.  The 
teacher  of  any  subject  is  the  chief  examiner  in  that  subject ; 
after  him,  anyone  may  continue  the  test.  The  inspector  may 
interject  questions  at  any  time,  or  take  the  lead  himself  in 
case  of  necessity.  In  Latin  and  Greek,  candidates  are  ex- 
pected to  read  at  sight  ordinary  prose  of  a  kind  similar  to 
the  readings  in  Prima  ;  the  verse  which  is  called  for  is  gen- 
erally that  studied  during  the  last  semester.  Criticism  and 
exegesis  are  always  in  order.  The  examination  in  history  is 
confined  to  the  later  periods,  especially  the  development  of 
Prussia.  Physics  is  not  prescribed  for  examination,  but  it  is 
recommended  that  it  be  treated  incidentally  in  connection 
with  mathematics. 

The  examination  in  each  subject  is  graded  by  the  chief  ex- 
aminer (i.e.,  the  regular  teacher  of  the  subject),  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  other  members  of  the  committee. 
stalling1  r^ne  committee  then  goes  into  executive  session, 
and  considers  in  detail  all  matters  pertaining 
to  the  examination,  both  written  and  oral,  of  each  candi- 
date. Three  factors  enter  into  the  final  decision  :  the  can- 
didate's record  in  the  school  ;  the  results  of  his  written  ex- 
amination ;  and  his  standing  in  the  oral  test.  The  passing 
mark  in  all  three  is  "  Satisfactory."  High  standing  in  some 
subjects,  however,  may  atone  for  slight  deficiencies  in  others ; 
but  no  candidate  will  be  passed  who  is  deficient  either  in 
German  or  in  both  the  classical  languages.  The  grade 
"  Unsatisfactory  "  in  one  of  the  classics  may  be  offset  by  a 
standing  of  at  least  ''Good"  in  the  other  ancient  language, 
in  German  or  mathematics.  In  the  same  way,  "  Unsatisfac- 
tory" in  mathematics  requires  at  least  "Good"  in  Greek, 
or  Latin  or  German.  All  members  of  the  committee  have  a 


EXAMINATIONS  AND  PRIVILEGES  185 

right  to  vote,  the  youngest  member  voting  first ;  and  in  case 
of  a  tie  the  provincial  inspector  casts  the  deciding  ballot. 
The  formal  report  is  then  signed  by  all  members  of  the  com- 
mittee, and  the  inspector  announces  the  results  to  the  wait- 
ing candidates. 

Successful  candidates  receive  a  diploma  (Reifezeugnis) 
signed  by  the  provincial  inspector  of  schools  and  other  mem- 
bers of  the  examining  committee.  This  di- 

The  Diploma. 

ploma  certifies  to  the  character,  conduct,  at- 
tention and  industry. of  the  holder  ;  to  his  standing  in  each 
subject  of  the  examination,  and  to  the  quality  of  his  work  in 
Oberprima.  It  also  designates  his  rank,  all  things  consid- 
ered, as  "  Very  Good,"  "  Good  "  or  "  Satisfactory."  In  case 
of  failure  the  candidate  may  have  two  more  trials,  whether 
he  attends  school  in  the  meantime  or  not. 

Persons  who  have  not  taken  a  regular  gymnasial  course, 
but  who  wish  to  enter  the  university  and  enjoy  the  privileges 
attached  to  the  leaving  examination,  may  apply  to  the  pro- 
vincial school-board  for  assignment  to  the  Maturitdtsprilfung 
of  some  Gymnasium.  In  the  same  way,  graduates  of  a  Real- 
gymnasium  or  an  Oberrealschule  may  be  admitted  to  the 
gymnasial  examination  in  subjects  which  they  have  not  al- 
ready passed. 

The  general  regulations  for  the  conduct  of  leaving  exam- 
inations are  the  same  in  the  Realgymnasium  and  Oberreal- 
schule as  in  the  Gymnasium.  In  each  case  the  work  of  the 
last  year  of  the  course  indicates  the  character  and  scope  of 
the  examination. 

The  Realgymnasium  and  the  Oberrealschule  require  in  the 
written  examination  (1)  a  German  essay  ;    (2)  a  French  or 
English  essay  ;  (3)  a  translation  from  German  Examination  ta 
into  French  or  English  ;  (4)  four  problems  in     other  Higher 
mathematics  —  one  each  from  algebra,    plane 
geometry,  solid  geometry,  trigonometry  or  analytical  geom- 
etry ;  (5)  one  problem  in  physics  or  chemistry  ;  and,  in  the 
Realgymnasium,  (6)  a  translation  from  Latin  into  German. 
The  oral  examination  is  confined  to  religion,  French,  Eng- 


186  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

lish,  history,  mathematics  and  either  chemistry  or  physics, 
according  to  which  is  called  for  in  the  written  test. 

The  candidate  is  not  passed  if  his  rank  in  German,  or  in 
both  modern  languages,  is  "  Unsatisfactory."  If  "  Unsat- 
isfactory "  in  one  modern  language,  he  must  be  at  least 
"  Good  "  in  the  other,  or  in  German  or  in  mathematics.  A 
realgymnasiast  ranking  "Unsatisfactory"  in  mathematics 
must  be  at  least  "  Good "  in  the  modern  languages  or  in 
German  ;  a  candidate  from  the  Oberrealschule  who  is  "  Un- 
satisfactory "  in  mathematics  must  be  at  least  "Good"  in 
physics  or  chemistry. 

The  Progymnasium  includes  in  its  written  examination 
(1)  a  German  essay  ;  (2)  a  translation  from  the  German 

Final  Examination  into  Latin>  (3)  into  Greek  and  (4)  into  French  ; 

in  six- Year     (5)  two  problems  f  rom  geometry  and  algebra, 
and  one  in  mensuration  of  solids.      The  oral 
examination  comprises   religion,  Latin    and  Greek,  history, 
geography  and  mathematics,  including  physics. 

In  the  Realprogymnasien  the  written  examination  includes 
(1)  the  German  essay ;  (2)  a  translation  from  the  German 
into  (3)  Latin,  (4)  French  and  (5)  English;  (6)  two  prob- 
lems from  algebra  and  geometry,  and  one  from  the  elemen- 
tary mensuration  of  solids.  The  oral  examination  includes 
religion,  French  and  English,  history  and  geography,  math- 
ematics and  science.  In  the  ReaUchulen  and  higher  burgher 
schools  the  written  examination  comprises  (1)  a  German 
essay ;  a  translation  from  German  (2)  into  French  and  (3) 
into  English  ;  (4)  two  problems  in  algebra  and  geometry, 
and  one  from  the  elementary  mensuration  of  solids.  The 
oral  examination  is  the  same  as  in  the  Progymnasien. 

No  one  can  be  graduated  from  any  secondary  school  who  is 
deficient  in  the  mother-tongue.     This  is  a  result  of  the  regu- 
lations and  Lehrplan  of  1892,  in  which  special 
Requirements     s^ress  *s  placed  upon  the  language,  literature 
and  history  of  Germany.     Some  of  the  standard 
subjects  of  the  old  examinations  are  no  longer  found  ;  for  ex- 
ample, the  Latin  essay  and  the  Greek  scriptum.     While  not 


EXAMINATIONS  AND  PRIVILEGES  187 

all  such  changes  are  agreeable  to  teachers  trained  under  the 
old  dispensation,  the  younger  men  as  a  rule  cordially  support 
the  new  order.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  writing 
and  speaking  of  Latin  as  formerly  taught  in  the  schools  was 
more  an  end  in  itself  than  a  means  to  an  end.  The  aim  of 
modern  methods  is  to  give  a  liberal  education  that  shall  be  as 
practical  and  useful  as  possible.  And  in  the  supreme  test,  as 
has  been  shown,  no  attempt  is  made  unduly  to  test  a  candi- 
date's memory.  The  only  person  who  knows  what  a  scholar 
is  worth  and  what  he  can  do,  his  teacher,  is  his  chief  ex- 
aminer. 

The  Abschhisspriifung,  which  comes  at  the  end  of  the  first 
six  school-years  in  the  nine-year  schools,  and  which  corre- 
sponds to  the  leaving  examination  of  the  Pro- 
gymnasien,  the  Realprogymnasien  and  the  Real- 
schulen,  is  of  recent  introduction.  From  the 
official  statistics  of  the  school-year  of  1889-1890  it  was  found 
that,  out  of  a  total  attendance  of  135,357  in  the  secondary 
schools  of  Prussia,  20,038  left  at  the  end  of  the  year.  Of  these, 
4,105  completed  the  course,  8,051  left  at  the  end  of  six  years, 
and  7,882  dropped  out  of  the  lower  classes.  It  is  seen,  there- 
fore, that  of  those  leaving  school  forty  per  cent,  were  satisfied 
with  a  six  years'  course,  while  only  twenty  per  cent,  secured 
the  Reifezeugnis.  The  important  fact  to  be  noted  is  that 
only  368  (from  higher  burgher  schools)  of  those  who  left 
school  at  the  end  of  the  six  years  went  out  with 
a  theoretically  complete  education.  All  others  Reasons  for  its 

J  Establishment. 

were  in  schools  whose  curricula  required  three 
years  longer  in  attendance.  This  was  one  of  the  problems 
which  engaged  the  attention  of  the  Berlin  School  Conference 
of  1890.  Up  to  that  time  all  of  the  secondary  schools,  with 
the  exception  of  the  higher  burgher  schools,  were  organized 
for  the  express  benefit  of  those  who  completed  the  nine  years' 
course.  It  was  recognized  that  nothing  could  be  done  for  the 
thirty-nine  per  cent,  who  left  school  during  the  first  five 
years,  but  for  the  forty  per  cent,  who  remained  only  long 
enough  to  secure  the  certificate  for  one  year's  military  service 


188  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

it  was  felt  that  some  reform  was  necessary.  The  curricula  of 
1892,  therefore,  were  so  arranged  that  those  leaving  at  the 
end  of  Untersecunda  would  have  a  well-rounded  training,  at 
least  in  religion,  German,  history  and  geography,  and  math- 
ematics. Opponents  of  the  new  order  object  to  this  measure 
on  the  grounds  that  it  amounts  practically  to  converting  the 
nine-year  institutions  into  six-year  schools,  with  a  three  years' 
continuation  course.  That  there  is  some  ground  for  this 
view  of  the  matter  is  evident  from  the  especially  marked  ten- 
dency in  the  Lehrplan  to  go  over  in  the  last  three  years  much 
the  same  ground  as  that  already  covered,  but  in  a  more 
thorough  and  intensive  way.  This  theory  of  working  in  con- 
centric circles  has  been  attacked  as  contrary  to  the  best  ped- 
agogical thought  of  the  times.  Nevertheless,  the  stern  fact 
remains,  and  it  is  one  with  which  there  is  no  compromising, 
that  more  than  twice  as  many  students  leave  school  from 
Secunda  as  finish  the  course.  The  practical  necessity  of 
assuring  so  large  a  percentage  of  high-school  pupils  a  toler- 
ably complete  education  has  rendered  imperative  an  awkward 
division  in  the  curriculum  at  the  end  of  the  middle  grades  of 
the  nine-year  schools. 

•  The  Abschlusspriifung  has  been  introduced,  therefore,  as  a 

leaving  examination  at  the  end  of  the   Untersecunda  for  all 

those  who  do    not  intend   to   continue  their 

Its  Comparative      tudjes>       It  ig  of   the   same   rank  ag    the    Reife_ 
Rank.  • 

prufung  in  six-year  schools,  and  is  conducted  by 
an  examination  committee,  under  the  direction  of  a  school  in- 
spector, in  precisely  the  same  way  as  the  other  leaving  exam- 
inations. But  as  yet  few  of  the  German  states  have  adjusted 
their  courses  to  it  ;  Prussia  is  content  to  await  their  pleasure. 
In  the  meantime  she  is  incurring  the  enmity  of  some  well- 
meaning  educationists,  who  would  hold  steadfastly  to  the 
highest  pedagogical  ideas  regardless  of  the  needs  of  a  majority 
of  higher-school  pupils. 

There  could  scarcely  be  a  better  system  of  examinations  for 
secondary  schools  than  that  which  has  been  worked  out  in 
Germany.  If  one  does  not  find  himself  in  full  sympathy  with 


EXAMINATIONS  AND  PRIVILEGES  189 

it  on  its  theoretical  side,  he  is  forced  to  acknowledge  its  su- 
perior excellence  in  its  practical  workings,  especially  when  it 
is  contrasted  with  the  prevailing  systems  in  Eng- 
land and  America.  It  is  not  a  lash  held  over 
scholars  to  make  them  work  the  harder,  nor 
does  it  convert  a  youth  into  a  mere  machine  for  grinding  out 
facts  on  demand.  It  allows  full  play  to  the  individuality  of 
pupil  and  teacher,  and  gives  both  every  opportunity  for  per- 
forming the  best  possible  service.  It  leaves  the  teacher  free 
to  devote  his  best  energies  to  the  mental-spiritual  develop- 
ment of  his  charge,  without  the  suspicion  that  someone  may 
come  in,  wholly  ignorant  of  the  character  of  his  pupils  and  of 
his  course  of  instruction,  to  test  them  on  what  might  be  the 
veriest  non-essentials.  It  gives  free  scope  for  the  best  teach- 
ers to  work  out  their  problems  in  their  own  way  ;  it  sets  a 
standard  below  which  the  poor  teacher  dare  not  fall  ;  in  short, 
it  accomplishes  all  that  any  system  of  examinations  could  be 
expected  to  do,  while  it  is  free,  at  least  in  its  practical  work- 
ings, from  the  evils  incident  to  the  popular  methods  of  this 
country. 

It  has  been  repeatedly  pointed  out  in  this  essay  that  the 
higher  schools  of  Germany  serve  purposes  other  than  merely 
giving  a  liberal  education.  It  is  inevitable  that 


a  state  system  of  education  should  be  controlled  0 


in  the  interests  of  the  state,  but  under  a  bu- 
reaucratic government  there  is  danger  of  using  the  schools  in 
the  interests  of  the  class  that  happens  to  be  in  power.  The 
tendency  in  Germany  to  regulate  everything  that  can  be  reg- 
ulated applies  to  the  control  of  public  education  as  to  every- 
thing else.  Little  chance  is  allowed  anywhere  to  individual 
initiative  ;  small  credence  is  given  to  the  ability  of  the  masses 
to  act  aright.  The  German  theory  is  that  it  is  better  to  avoid 
mistakes  than  to  make  them  even  for  the  sake  of  gaining  ex- 
perience. 

It  is  with  reluctance  that  I  turn  to  the  system  of  privileges 
so  intimately  associated  with  the  examination  system.  It  is 
at  this  point  that  the  grip  of  the  government  is  most  seriously 


190  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

felt.  The  state  is  not  content  to  give  to  youth  a  liberal 
education  which  he  can  use  in  the  service  of  the  state,  but  it 
must  compel  him  to  conform  to  a  prescribed  form  if  he  would 
succeed.  Thus  it  happens  that  each  higher  school,  almost 
each  year  in  school,  has  its  cash  value.  It  is  a  load  which 
the  schools  can  ill  afford  to  carry.  It  mars  what  otherwise 
might  be  the  most  nearly  perfect  educational  system  in  the 
world.  It  distorts  educational  progress,  and  bids  fair  ulti- 
mately to  give  an  advantage  to  the  enemies  of  the  Father- 
land, the  value  of  which  they  seem  thoroughly  to  appreciate. 

There  are  three  groups  of  privileges  which  may  be  dis- 
tinguished :  First,  the  right  of  one-year  volunteer  service 
in  the  army  ;  second,  the  admission  to  the  uni- 

TJj"f.Main      versity  and    the    learned   professions  ;    third, 

Divisions.  *  '. 

preparation  for  various  posts  in  the  civil  and 
military  service.  The  first  two  are  of  special  interest  in  this 
connection. 

1.  The  privilege  of  one-year  volunteer  service  in  the  army 
(Einjahrig-freiwilliger  Dienst}  is  granted  upon  the  success- 
ful completion  of  a  six  years'  course  of  study 
™  anv  recognize(l  higher  school  in  any  German 
state,  and  to  those  persons  not  being  pupils 
in  a  higher  school  who  are  fitted  privately  or  by  study  in  a 
school  not  officially  recognised  and  succeed  in  passing  a  spe- 
cial examination  similar  to  the  Abschlussprilfung. 

In  the  last  century,  when  the  army  was  recruited  by  con- 
scription in  the  various  cantons,  university  students  were 
free  from  military  service.     So  many  accord- 

C\v-\ff\r\  €\f  l"VnA 

Ye«r  service.  m$J  entered  the  university  for  no  other  pur- 
pose than  to  avoid  army  service  that  a  special 
examination  was  instituted  in  1793  to  determine  who  might 
take  up  university  work  with  a  profit.  At  first  the  examina- 
tion was  restricted  to  gymnasial  students  fourteen  years  of 
age.  With  the  introduction  of  universal  military  service,  in 
1814,  an  exception  was  made  in  the  case  of  young  men  of  the 
upper  classes  who  desired  to  devote  themselves  to  professional 
study  whereby  they  were  given  the  privilege  of  but  one  year 


EXAMINATIONS  AND  PRIVILEGES  191 

of  army  service.  Only  those  who  gave  promise  of  special 
ability  were  awarded  the  privilege.  Students  in  the  higher 
classes  of  the  Gymnasien,  even  down  to  Tertia,  who  satisfied 
these  requirements  might  receive  the  recognition.  In  1822 
the  completion  of  Tertia  was  required,  and  since  that  time 
the  standard  has  been  gradually  raised  until,  in 
1868,  the  minimum  requirement  was  set  at  the  conditions, 
end  of  the  Untersecunda,  where  it  has  since  re- 
mained. Other  changes  have  also  been  made.  The  privilege 
was  granted  first  only  to  those  who  gave  special  promise  of 
professional  success.  For  thirty  years,  however,  it  has  been 
held  up  as  a  prize  for  all  who  could  pass  a  definite  examina- 
tion, notwithstanding  that  some  might  not  intend  to  enter 
upon  professional  study  at  all,  or  even  remain  longer  in  school. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  this  latter  class  now  includes  more  than 
one-half  of  all  those  who  secure  the  privilege. 

With  the  foundation  of  the  North  German  Confederation 
and,  later,  of  the  Empire,  the  system  introduced  by  Prussia 
was  adopted  by  the  other  states.  In  order  to  The  Imperiai 
secure  a  greater  uniformity  in  methods  and  an  school 
approved  standard,  an  Imperial  School  Com- 
mission (Reichs- Schulcommission)  was  appointed  in  1875, 
whose  chief  function  is  to  advise  the  imperial  chancellor  as  to 
what  schools  may  with  propriety  be  granted  the  privilege  of 
awarding  the  certificate  which  frees  its  holder  from  one  year 
of  military  service.  This  commission  consists  of  six  mem- 
bers :  Four  represent  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Wurtem- 
berg  ;  a  fifth  member  is  chosen  biennially  from  Baden,  Hesse, 
Alsace-Lorraine  and  Mecklenberg-Schwerin  in  turn ;  the 
sixth  member  represents  the  other  German  states,  likewise 
in  terms  of  two  years.  This  is  the  only  attempt  made  to 
unite  the  different  states  of  the  empire  in  any  matter  per- 
taining to  school  affairs.  The  members  of  the  commission 
are  all  teachers,  or  officers  in  the  Education  Departments  of 
the  different  states. 

2.  Admission  to  any  faculty  of  the  university,  and  ulti- 
mately to  the  learned  professions,  is  unconditionally  permitted 


192  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

only  to  those  who  hold  a  Reifezeugnis  from  a  Gymnasium. 

Graduates  of  a  complete  course  in  the  Realgymnasium  may 

pursue  such  courses  in  the  university  as  will 

2.  University     gj.   ^hem  ^o  become  teachers  of  mathematics. 

study. 

natural  sciences  and  modern  languages,  but 
they  may  not  study  theology,  law  or  medicine.  A  Reifezeug- 
nis from  an  Oberrealschule  grants  the  privilege  of  university 
study  only  in  mathematics  and  natural  sciences. 

The  leaving  examination  which  was  introduced  in  Prussian 
schools  in   1788  carried  with  it  the  privilege  of  admission 
to  the  university,  but  not  until  1834  was  the 
conditioni        *est  °^  muc^  practical  importance.     In  the  lat- 
ter year  it  was  made  an  essential  prerequisite 
to  all  professional  advancement.     During  the  following  gen- 
eration the  Gymnasium  had  a  monopoly  of  all  university  pre- 
paratory work.     In  1870,  by  the  recognition  of  the  Real- 
gymnasium,  Greek  was  made  optional  for 'entrance  upon  the 
courses  in  mathematics  and  modern  languages.     Finally,  in 
1892,  the  privileges  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph 
were  granted   to  the  higher  schools.     It  has  been  a  long 
struggle,  the  end  of  which  is  not  yet  in  sight. 

3.  Graduates  of  Gymnasien,  Realgymnasien  and  Oberreal- 
schulen  alike  have  the  privilege  of  continuing  their  studies  in 

higher  technical    schools   in    architecture ;  in 
civil,  mechanical,  electrical  and  mining  engi- 

Examinations.  o         ° 

neering ;  in  art,  in  agriculture — in  short,  m  all 
lines  which  lead  up  to  the  state  examinations  for  admission 
to  all  posts  in  the  civil  and  military  service  not  included  in 
the  learned  professions. 

The  privileges  attached  to  certificates  of  completion,  of 
courses  less  than  nine  years  in  length  will  be  found  in  full  in 
the  appendix  to  this  volume.  An  examination 
of  this  table  will  show  that  the  higher  schools 
are  the  only  gateways  to  positions  of  honour 
and  trust  in  the  state.  Industrial  and  commercial  occupa- 
tions alone  are  freed  from  official  interference  ;  but  with  state 
control  of  the  railways,  telegraph  and  postal  systems,  of  bank- 


EXAMINATIONS  AND  PRIVILEGES  193 

ing  and  certain  industrial  interests,  even  freedom  in  business 
is  not  altogether  assured.  Bureaucracy  is  omnipresent,  and 
almost  omnipotent;  the  higher  schools,  unfortunately,  are 
a  chief  means  of  perpetuating  its  power. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — Wiese,  Das  hohere  Schulwesen  in  Preussen  ; 
Wiese-Kiibler,  Gesetzeund  Verordnungen  ;  Centralblatt  fur  die  gesammte 
Unterrichts-  Verwaltung  in  Preussen ;  Encyclopedias  of  Schmid  and  Rein; 
Phillip,  Das  hohere  Schulwesen  in  Konigreiche  Sachsen,  Dresden,  1889. 
And  see  Bibliography,  p.  455,  Nos.  Ic,  2,  4.  For  changes  in  system  of 
privileges,  see  Chapter  XXII. 

NOTE  TO  SECOND  EDITION  : 

The  regulations  of  1901  prescribe  the  following  subjects  for  the  leav- 
ing examination  in  Prussia : 

(1)  Written — For  all  schools,  a  German  essay  and  four  problems  in 

mathematics,  and  also  for  the 
(a)  Gymnasien,  &  translation  from  German  into  Latin  and  from 

Greek  into  German, 
(&)  Realgymnasien,  a  translation  from  the  Latin  into  German,  an 

essay  in  either  French  or  English,  a  translation  from  the 

German  into  French  or  English,  and  one  problem  in  physics, 

and 
(c)  Oberrealschulen,  a  French  or  an  English  essay,  and  a  translation 

from  the  German  into  English  or  French  and  one  problem 

from  physics  or  chemistry. 

(2)  Oral — For  all  schools,  the  Christian  religion,  history  and  mathe- 

matics, and  also  for 

(a)  Gymnasien,  Latin,  Greek,  and  either  French  or  English, 

(b)  Realgymnasien,  Latin,   French,  and   English,  and    physics  or 

chemistry,  and 

(c)  Oberrealschulen,  French,  English,  physics  and  chemistry. 


CHAPTER    X 

STUDENT  LIFE  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

THE  school  life  of  the  average  German  boy,  estimated  in 
English  or  American  terms,  is  rather  tame  and  uninteresting. 
There  is  little  of  the  dash  and  vigour,  little  of 
the  vivacity  anti  buoyancy  of  spirits,  which  we 
consider  essential  to  the  normal  development 
of  a  healthy  boy.  Carelessness  and  indifference,  where  they 
exist,  are  evidences  of  laziness  rather  than  of  perverseness. 
The  German  school-boy  has  no  time  for  sports  ;  family  pride 
and  personal  ambition  keep  him  incessantly  at  his  tasks. 
The  good  time  that  he  looks  forward  to,  the  time  of  his  free- 
dom from  bondage,  comes  with  his  admission  to  the  univer- 
sity. "Then,"  he  resolves,  "  I  will  do  as  I  please." 

This  getting  of  an  education  is  a  serious  matter  to  the 
German  youth,  and  he  looks  every  inch  the  martyr  that  he 
really  is.    He  has  no  interest  in  outdoor  games, 
[°  "piay  f°      no  esPecial    fondness  for   indoor  gymnastics  ; 
he  is  practically  denied  what  every  American 
boy   considers    an  inalienable   birthright,    the    privilege    of 
joining  with  his  fellows  in  societies  for  moral,  intellectual 
and  social  purposes  ;  an  ardent  admirer  of  all  things  military, 
yet  military  drill  forms  no  part  of  his  physical  training  until 
his  school-days  are  over.      The  inevitable  consequences  are 
clearly  to  be  remarked  in  the  middle  and  upper  grades — great 
unevenness  in  form  and  stature,  sallow  complexions  and  gen- 
eral lack  of  animal  spirits.      Skating  seems  to  be  the  one 
form  of  popular  recreation.     The  recent  revival  of  gymnas- 
tics may  have  done  much,  it  may  yet  do  more,  for  the  phys- 

194 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ical  well-being  of  the  German  schools  ;  but  I  have  serious 
doubts  of  the  complete  success  of  the  system  so  long  as  it 
provides  for  no  spontaneous  outdoor  sports. 

The  esprit  de  corps  of  the  public  day-schools  is,  in  my 
opinion,  weak  and  uncertain.  Too  many  pupils  regard  them- 
selves deprived  of  harmless  liberties,  many 
others  have  no  thought  except  to  get  through 
and  away  ;  there  is  far  too  little  personal  con- 
tact of  teacher  with  pupil,  too  little  love  and  devotion  be- 
tween pupil  and  teacher.  A  strong  sentiment  of  loyalty  to 
the  school  and  its  traditions  cannot  thrive  in  such  atmos- 
phere. It  would  be  erroneous,  however,  to  conclude  that 
because  school  loyalty  is  not  strong,  therefore  disloyalty  and 
anarchy  prevail.  To  all  appearances  German  school  life  is 
neither  the  one  nor  the  other.  It  has  always  impressed  me 
as  being  almost  entirely  devoid  of  sentiment,  good  or  bad. 
The  average  boy  seems  to  consider  schooling  a  necessary  evil 
— something  to  be  endured  patiently,  resolutely,  thankfully, 
if  only  thereby  he  escape  social  damnation. 

So  far  as  I  can  judge,  the  little  effervescence  to  be  found  in 
the  day-schools  is  allowed  to  work  off  in  harmless  public 
entertainments,  to  which  the  parents  have  a 

.     Public  Exercises. 

special  invitation.  At  the  close  of  the  year  it 
is  customary  for  the  director  to  issue  the  program  of  the 
year's  work,  including  list  of  graduates,  important  announce- 
ments and  an  invitation  to  all  interested  to  attend  the  clos- 
ing exercises.  These  consist  (1)  of  public  examinations  ; 
(2)  of  rhetorical,  musical  or  gymnastic  exhibitions,  and  (3) 
of  public  lectures. 

The  examinations  are  purely  formal  in  character,  as  has 
been  already  stated,  and  are  of  comparatively  little  interest 
except  to  parents.  The  Berlin  city  schools  have  done  away 
with  them  altogether ;  many  others  would  like  to,  but  the 
time  does  not  seem  to  have  come  for  severing  another  link 
that  binds  the  present  to  the  past. 

The  rhetorical  and  gymnastic  entertainments  are  always 
liberally  interlarded  with  excellent  musical  selections.  The 


196  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

very  lack  of  an  inspiring  school  life  sends  German  boys  to 
their  homes  for  amusement  and  recreation.  And  the  cult- 
ured home  is  certain  to  be  musical.  It  is  an 
open  question  whether  the  love  of  music  is 
cause  or  effect  of  the  prevailing  disregard  of  out- 
door sports  ;  at  any  rate,  the  two  interests  do  not  seem  to 
thrive  well  together.  There  is  devotion  to  music  in  the  home, 
and  there  is  a  love  for  it  in  the  school.  The  result  is  plenty 
of  good  musicians,  few  good  athletes.  Elocution  is  little 
practised  ;  the  ability  to  write  clearly  and  to  read  well  is 
everywhere  considered  an  essential  element  in  education. 
Public  exercises,  therefore,  are  most  popular  in  which  music 
and  essay  reading  predominate.  The  patriotic  theme  is  the 
prevailing  one  for  public  occasions ;  panegyrics  on  William 
I.,  Bismarck  and  von  Moltke  are  good  stock  in  trade.  Hero- 
worship  is  a  settled  policy  of  the  Fatherland  ;  from  it  patriot- 
ism is  born. 

The  birthdays  of  the  reigning  sovereign  and  the  anniver- 
sary of  the  victory  at  Sedan  are  occasions  of  special  rejoicing, 
of  speech-making  and  of  freedom  from  lessons. 
Celebrations      ^n  ^nese  days  all  public  buildings  are  deco- 
rated ;   bunting,  flags  and  streamers  are  flung 
out  from  every  house,  and  at  night  illuminations  are  visible 
on  every  hand.     In  school  all  work  is  suspended.     The  boys 
gather  early  to  hear  an  oration  from  some  one  of  the  masters 
on  the  significance  of  the  day  ;  after  this  short  exercise  there 
is  freedom  for  all. 

The  German  boarding-schools,  some  of  them  at  least,  oc- 
cupy an  honourable  place  in  the  school  system.  The  gymna- 
sial  schools  are  as  proud  of  their  records  as  Eton,  or  Harrow 
or  Rugby.  The  cloistral  schools  of  St.  Afra  in  Meissen, 
Schulpforta  and  Rossleben  are  the  most  famous  of  the  gym- 
nasial  boarding-schools.  The  two  former  were 
founded  in  1543,  and  Rossleben  is  only  eleven 
years  younger.  St.  Afra  has  an  income  of 
125,000  marks,  of  which  more  than  one-half  is  from  its  orig- 
inal endowment.  Besides  running  expenses,  this  provides 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      197 

free  places  for  105  scholars,  and  25  more  receive  some  aid. 
The  Saxon.  Minister  of  Education  grants  65  of  these  scholar- 
ships, 11  of  which  must  be  given  to  sons  of  clergymen ;  20 
places  are  at  the  disposal  of  certain  noble  families,  and  the 
remaining  45  belong  to  some  26  cities  of  Saxony.  Only  boys 
of  thirteen,  or  those  prepared  to  enter  Unterter- 

Meissen. 

tia,  are  admitted.  That  the  St.  Afra  boys  are 
kept  busy  is  evident  from  the  following  order  of  the  day  :  5 
A.M.,  rising  bell;  5.20,  prayers  and  first  breakfast;  5.40, 
study ;  6.30,  free  ;  7,  lessons ;  9,  second  breakfast ;  9.15, 
lessons  ;  11,  free;  12,  reading;  12.45  P.M.,  dinner,  afterward 
free  ;  2,  lessons  ;  4,  free  ;  5,  study  ;  7,  supper  ;  8.15,  busy- 
work  ;  9,  prayers  ;  9.15,  younger  pupils  retire  ;  10,  lights  out. 
Rossleben,  with  an  income  of  129,000  marks,  is  distinctly 
a  school  for  noblemen.  It  has  about  eighty  pupils  in  seven 
gymnasial  classes  ;  boys  are  taken  first  in 

fej  J  Rossleben. 

Quarta.  The  thirty  free  places  provided  for  in 
the  endowment  are  awarded  by  four  members  of  the  Witzleben 
family,  direct  descendants  of  the  founder  of  the  school.  The 
discipline  at  Rossleben  is  truly  Prussian.  The  extreme  pen- 
alty, removal  from  the  school,  is  attached  to  thj3  violation  of 
many  rules.  Typical  prohibitions  are  the  following  :  gam- 
bling in  any  form,  having  playing-cards  in  one's  possession,  all 
aping  of  university  societies  and  customs,  having  or  drinking 
wine,  beer  or  liquors  on  school  premises.  No  sweetmeats 
may  be  brought  to  the  school  ;  visits  to  the  confectioners',  as 
to  beer-gardens,  are  regulated  by  the  teachers  in  conference. 
The  Rektor  inspects  all  correspondence  in  which  the  boys  are 
a  party. 

Schulpforta — income,  273,000  marks — is  perhaps  the  finest 
type   of  upper-class  school.     Its  situation,  midway  between 
Kosen  and    Naumburg,  on   the  banks  of  the 
Saale,  is  especially  charming.     The  gray  stone 
walls  of  the  old  cloister,  the  ivy-covered  towers,  the  soft  col- 
ourings of  the  tiled  roofs  and  the  Gothic  spires  of  the  newer 
buildings  combine  harmoniously  to  produce  an  effect  quite  in 
keeping  with  the  beauty  of  the  natural  surroundings.     The 


198  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

grounds,  several  acres  in  extent,  are  walled  in  as  they  were,  I 
suppose,  three  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago.  At  the  entrance 
stands  an  imposing  building  belonging  to  the  administration 
department ;  for  one  must  know  that  Schulpforta  is  a  con- 
siderable village  of  itself — at  least,  it  provides  employment  to 
the  usual  number  of  government  officials.  Near  by  are  the 
barns  connected  with  the  agricultural  domains  of  the  institu- 
tion. Farther  down  the  avenue  and  directly  facing  it  stands 
the  main  group  of  buildings,  consisting  of  the  cloister,  which 
is  used  as  a  school-house  and  boys'  home  combined,  library, 
chapel  and  gymnasium.  The  houses  of  the  Rektor  and  the 
married  masters,  the  hospital  and  home  of  the  school  physi- 
cian, stand  by  themselves  apart.  The  class  and  study-rooms 
are  dull  and  unattractive  ;  the  chapel,  aula  and  library  have 
recently  been  modernized,  but  without  violence  to  the  spirit 
of  their  mediaeval  architecture.  In  the  rear  of  the  buildings 
is  a  spacious  play-ground — such  as  would  delight  the  hearts  of 
the  most  fastidious  foot-ball  team — while  several  pieces  of 
outdoor  athletic  apparatus  and  a  bowling-alley  for  each  class 
do  not  lessen  its  attractiveness  for  the  German  school-boy.  Of 
the  one  hundred  and  eighty  places  in  the  school,  one  hundred 
and  forty  are'free.  The  Prussian  Government  awards  half  of 
these,  and  the  remainder  are  distributed  among  certain  Prus- 
sian cities  and  the  church.  Even  the  casual  visitor  to 
Schulpforta  must  be  impressed  with  the  beauty  of  the  place 
and  the  wealth  of  its  historic  traditions.  AVho  can  tell  what 
events  occurred  here,  what  tragedies  were  enacted,  before  the 
quiet  convent  of  Luther's  time  was  transformed,  under  the 
influence  of  his  teaching,  into  the  protestant  school  that  Mau- 
rice of  Saxony  made  it !  A  portrait  of  the  founder  hangs  on 
the  chapel  wall ;  and  a  kindly  face  it  shows,  too,  but  his  full 
coat  of  burnished  armour  bespeaks  methods  not  wholly  peace- 
ful in  the  accomplishment  of  his  purposes. 

The  modern  boarding-school  is  of  a  different  type.  In  so 
far  as  the  modern  spirit  is  commercial  are  these  schools 
adapted  to  that  end  ;  but  there  are  many  learned  men  in  Ger- 
many who  deprecate  the  hard  and  fast  lines  of  the  public 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      199 

schools,  and  accordingly  seek  out  for  their  sons  a  more  elastic 
curriculum.  Such  a  school  must  necessarily  be  private, 
though  privileged  to  prepare  for  the  volunteer 

•          rf.  ,     f    r,      •  -L  i    7.,  The  Stoy  School. 

army  service.  The  Stoy  sche  Erziehungs-Anstalt 
in  Jena,  which  I  choose  to  describe  at  length,  is  one  of  the 
best  of  its  kind.  For  the  student  of  education  it  has  an 
especial  interest  in  that  it  embodies  to  the  very  detail  those 
ideas  which  made  Professor  K.  V.  Stoy  one  of  the  most  fa- 
mous educators  of  the  last  generation.  The  world  already 
knows  of  his  early  struggles  to  found  a  truly  educational  in- 
stitution on  the  Herbartian  principles,  which  should  at  the 
same  time  be  a  training-school  for  his  university  students  in 
pedagogy.  From  the  small  beginning  in  1843  there  developed 
eventually  the  original  Stoy  School.  But  when  Stoy  was 
called  to  Heidelberg,  in  1866,  the  school  in  Jena  passed  into 
strangers'  hands.  Fourteen  years  later  the  old  banner  was 
again  raised  over  a  new  institution  bearing  the  name  of  the 
old  master,  but  with  a  son  of  the  former  one,  Dr.  H.  Stoy, 
as  the  new  Director.  The  pupils  of  the  old  school  trans- 
ferred their  allegiance  to  the  new,  and  the  friends  of  the 
father  became  supporters  of  the  son.  Its  success  was  assured 
from  the  start. 

The  school  property,  situated  on  the  rising  ground  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  town,  is  some  two  or  three  acres  in  ex- 
tent. A  large  piece  of  land  on  the  heights  a 
mile  below  Jena  is  also  in  the  possession  of  the 
school,  and  there  the  head-master  has  a  summer  cottage 
where  the  boys  find  entertainment  on  many  of  their  country 
excursions.  The  school  buildings,  four  in  number,  are  in 
the  Swiss  style  of  architecture.  The  school-house,  a  three- 
story  building  completed  in  1892,  is  admirably  arranged  for 
class  purposes,  well  lighted  and  ventilated  and  heated  by 
steam.  In  addition  to  class-rooms,  it  provides  a  large  room 
for  drawing,  another  for  the  very  large  collection  in  natural 
history,  besides  chemical  and  physical  laboratories  ;  another 
building  serves  for  gymnasium  and  workshops  ;  a  third  is  the 
hospital,  which  is  fitted  up  for  ten  patients.  The  boarding- 


200  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

hall,  an  imposing  three-story  structure,  is  the  home  of  the 
Direktor,  the  unmarried  masters  and  seventy  boys.  On  the 
first  floor  are  the  head-master's  rooms — eight  in  number — the 
kitchen,  dining-room  and  lower  class  study-rooms.  The  en- 
tire second  floor,  save  for  teachers'  conference-room,  seniors' 
study-hall  and  a  servants'  work-room,  is  divided  into  four 
dormitories,  each  with  fifteen  to  twenty  beds.  The  third 
floor  is  arranged  for  teachers'  rooms  and  rooms  for  music, 
school  library  and  housekeeper's  appointments. 

The  army  life,  which  the  average  German  boy  looks  for- 
ward to  with  pleasure,  predisposes  him  to  regard  favourably 
,  _,         the  barrack  system  in  his  boarding-school.    The 

Dormitories.  .        .        J 

dormitories  of  the  Stoy  School  are  scrupulously 
clean,  but  absolutely  wanting  in  those  conveniences  which 
American  boys  consider  indispensable.  The  single  pair  of 
hooks  at  the  head  of  each  bed  and  the  row  of  towels  sur- 
rounding the  general  wash-stand  were  the  sole  articles  of  use 
or  luxury  that  I  could  detect.  The  bedsteads  are  of  iron, 
single,  and  without  springs.  Each  boy  provides  his  own  mat- 
tresses and  bedding,  as  well  as  towels,  napkins,  spoons  and 
personal  clothing.  The  requirements  in  these  respects  are 
unusually  large,  and  bespeak  a  good  class  of  patronage.  A 
boy's  school  expenses  vary  from  1,200  to  1,500  marks  yearly. 
The  household  management  is  exceptionally  good.  In  sys- 
tematic precision  it  is  truly  German — and  Prussian  at  that. 

The  housekeeper,  besides  the  customary  duties 

Regulations.  f     '  . 

of  such  a  position,  takes  entire  charge  of  the 
boy's  wardrobe  and  keeps  it  under  lock  and  key.  Except  at 
stated  times,  a  boy  may  not  have  even  a  change  of  handker- 
chiefs without  a  written  order  from  the  Direktor.  Twice  a 
week  clean  underwear  is  given  out,  and  the  soiled  articles 
gathered  up  from  the  dormitories  the  next  day.  In  the  linen- 
room  there  is  a  case  for  each  boy's  clothing ;  every  article, 
even  to  the  shoes,  must  be  marked  with  the  boy's  number. 
Special  requests  for  clothing  may  be  made  to  the  head-master 
after  supper ;  the  orders  are  written  in  the  housekeeper's 
book,  and  the  articles,  as  ordered,  are  delivered  in  the  sleep- 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      201 

ing-rooms  before  the  boys  go  to  bed.  Orders  for  the  shoe- 
maker and  tailor  are  taken  in  the  same  way,  by  number,  and 
the  record  is  retained  by  the  housekeeper,  through  whom  all 
such  business  is  transacted.  In  this  work  the  housekeeper  is 
assisted  by  a  maid  ;  she  has,  too,  under  her  direction  a  cook, 
two  waitresses,  who  also  do  the  chamber  work,  and  two  resi- 
dent porters  and  their  wives.  The  laundry  work  is  done  in 
town,  the  housekeeper  being  responsible  merely  for  the  mend- 
ing. 

The  school  is  a  RealscJiule  with  six  classes.  In  addition 
there  is  a  lower  school  of  three  classes,  for  boys  from  six  to 
nine  years,  which  is  intended  to  fit  for  any 
kind  of  higher  school.  The  school  usually 
numbers  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pupils,  most  of  the 
lower  school  and  some  of  the  older  boys  being  day  pupils. 
French  is  taught  from  the  beginning  of  the  course,  and 
English  the  last  three  years.  Latin  and  Greek  may  be  had 
only  in  private  lessons.  Mathematics  and  the  sciences  are 
especially  emphasized.  Elective  subjects  are  quite  unknown, 
as  indeed  is  the  case  in  all  German  schools. 

The  masters,  twelve  in  all,  are  appointed  by  the  Direktor, 
subject  to  confirmation  by  the  state  department  of  education. 
The  qualifications  are  the  same  as  for  the  pub- 

,.      ,  .    ,  11-  •          -4.  •    •         f  i        The  Masters. 

lie  higher  schools,  i.e.,  university  training  fol- 
lowed by  the  state  examination,  and  then  a  year  in  a  peda- 
gogical seminary  and  another  year  as  trial  teacher  in  a  higher 
school.  The  assistant  city  pastor  gives  lessons  in  religion, 
and  there  are  two  special  music  teachers.  The  salaries  are 
practically  the  same  as  for  the  public  schools,  1,800-4,000 
marks.  New  appointees,  beginning  at  the  minimum,  are 
advanced  annually  100  marks  for  the  first  ten  years,  after 
which  private  arrangements  are  made.  The  ordinary  super- 
vision of  the  hall  is  divided  among  the  masters,  whether 
resident  or  not,  each  taking  a  day  in  turn  ;  and  a  day  means 
twenty-four  hours  !  At  Schulpforta  the  masters  serve  a 
week  about,  taking  the  entire  discipline,  day  and  night.  On 
Sundays  and  half-holidays  extra  supervision  is  required  from 


202  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

the  younger  masters.  Three  conferences  a  week  are  held— . 
two  on  house  matters  and  one  for  the  school.  Subjects  for 
discussion  arise  from  the  written  reports  of  the  supervisors 
and  from  the  class-books,  in  which  are  noted  the  main  points 
of  every  lesson  and  the  progress  and  deportment  of  the 
pupils.  Aside  from  these  conferences,  the  masters  not  on 
duty  are  entirely  free.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  average 
teacher  gives  not  more  than  twenty  lessons  a  week,  it  must 
be  acknowledged,  I  think,  that  a  master's  position  in  a  Ger- 
man boarding-school  is  not  only  more  secure  but  less  irksome 
than  usually  obtains  in  American  schools.  The  difference  in 
the  national  customs  and  modes  of  life  is  undoubtedly  the 
prime  reason  ;  but,  whatever  be  the  causes,  the  fact  remains 
that  the  German  is  more  independent  and  can  less  justly 
complain  of  the  never-ending  round  of  extraneous  duties  in- 
cident to  boarding-school  life. 

By  courtesy  of  the  head-master  I  was  enabled,  on  March  5, 
1894,  to  spend  an  entire  day  with  the  boys  of  the  Stoy  School. 

It   was  not  yet  daylight  when  I   began    my 
Experience      rounds  with  the   teacher  in   charge.     At   six 

o'clock  the  boys  are  called.  One  sleepy  lad 
fumbles  around  for  a  bit  of  paper,  and  when  it  is  found  he 
brings  it  to  the  master  for  his  signature.  It  is  explained  to 
me  that  the  poor  fellow  has  the  pernicious  habit  of  sleeping 
a  little  late  in  the  morning — and  you  know  Germans  must 
never  be  late — hence  this  collection  of  teachers'  autographs. 
Half  an  hour  is  allowed  for  dressing,  turning  down  the  beds 
and  putting  all  in  order  ;  at  6.30  the  sleepiest  boy  of  the  lot 
must  leave  the  room,  not  to  return  till  9  P.M.  The  dormi- 
tories are  then  carefully  inspected  by  one  of  the  boys,  who 
notes  in  a  book  the  numbers  of  those  luckless  chaps  that 
have  forgotten  to  hang  up  their  towels,  to  open  the  windows, 
or  otherwise  have  done  offence  to  the  letter  of  the  law. 
In  the  meantime  the  boys  are  exchanging,  in  the  corridor 
below,  their  house-slippers  for  shoes,  which  have  been  care- 
fully polished  for  them  overnight  and  placed  by  the  porter 
in  the  numbered  compartments  ^of  a  large  case.  Next  they 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      203 

line  up  on  each  side  of  the  hallway,  where  they  are  inspected 
by  the  master  ;  the  roll  is  called  by  number,  each  boy  speak- 
ing out  his  own.  The  monitors — the  Heifer,  so  called — 
one  for  the  sleeping  quarters,  another  for  the  study-rooms 
and  boot-case  are  appointed  by  the  faculty  from  the  upper 
classes  and  serve  for  one  week  ;  then  give  their  report.  De- 
linquents must  at  once  make  good  their  failures  ;  then  break- 
fast is  announced.  Before  taking  places  at  the  tables  all 
gather  about  the  piano  to  sing  the  Morgenlied ;  to-day  it  is 
a  single  stanza  of  one  of  Luther's  hymns. 

The  breakfast  would  scarcely  satisfy  an  American  boy — two 
small  rolls  (no  butter)  and  a  cup  of  tea  for  the  elder  pupils, 
hot  milk  for  the  younger  ones,  is  the  entire  bill 

Breakfast 

of  fare.  But  it  is  the  German  custom  to  break- 
fast on  coffee  and  rolls.  The  room  is  of  ample  size,  finished 
in  dark  woods  and  ornamented  with  the  ever-present  signs 
of  German  patriotism — the  busts  of  the  recent  Emperors, 
Bismarck,  Moltke,  Schiller  and  Goethe.  I  remark  that  the 
circle  is  incomplete,  as  the  Grand  Duke  and  Duchess  and  the 
Empress  are  wanting ;  but  I  am  told  that  it  is  for  lack  of 
room,  not  of  loyalty,  that  it  so  happens. 

After  breakfast  conies  an  hour  of  study.  There  are  four 
rooms  for  this  purpose,  three  of  them  connected  and  under 
the  supervision  of  a  teacher  ;  the  first  class  and 

.    .        Study-Hours. " 

a  few  selected  from  the  second  enjoy  the  privi- 
lege of  a  separate  room  under  the  guidance  of  a  monitor. 
Each  boy  has  a  table  with  drawer,  and  woe  to  him  who  lets 
confusion  enter  here  ;  besides  this  he  is  allotted  a  shelf  in  the 
general  bookcase  and  a  small  cupboard,  which  is  under  lock 
and  key.  This  last  is  the  boy's  own,  his  sole  possession  that 
escapes  inspection.  I  got  a  glimpse  of  the  contents  of  one 
compartment  belonging  to  a  twelve-year-old  :  a  pair  of  skates, 
a  ball,  an  old  cap,  a  handkerchief  or  two  that  had  escaped 
the  housekeeper — so  much  was  on  the  surface,  the  rest  must 
be  left  to  imagination.  At  eight  o'clock  we  go  to  the  school- 
house,  where  we  assemble  in  the  drawing-room  to  sing  the 
morning  song.  Recitations  begin  at  the  first  quarter  of  the 


204  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

hour  and  last  forty-five  minutes  each.    According  to  the  Ger- 
man plan  each  class,  with  the  exception  of  the  Vorschule, 
recites  every  period.      The  schedule  for   the 

Lessons. 

upper  classes,  therefore,  calls  for  some  thirty- 
three  to  thirty-five  periods  a  week,  but  naturally  little  outside 
preparation  is  expected. 

At  ten  o'clock  comes  the  second  breakfast.     Each  boy  gets 

a  generous  slice  of  black  bread  with  butter,  which  he  eats 

while  at  play  in  the  yard.     And  here  let  me 

Second  Breakfast.  .  4.1.1411 

remark,  parenthetically,  that  the  second  break- 
fast is  even  of  more  consequence  than  the  first  ;  the  roll  and 
coffee  may  be  dispensed  with,  but  not  so  with  the  Butterbrot. 
In  the  Volkssclmlen  the  pupils  generally  are  equipped  with  two 
huge  slices  of  very  black  bread  and  a  minimum  of  butter.  At 
this  mass  the  child  gnaws  away  during  every  intermission  of 
the  morning,  and  notwithstanding  the  size  of  the  piece — often 
eight  to  ten  inches  long  by  two  thick — I  have  seldom  seen  a 
division  made  of  the  lunch  for  the  different  periods.  Suffi- 
cient unto  the  day  is  the  bread  thereof  ! 

The  work  of  the  morning  is  finished  at  twelve,  save  on 
Wednesdays  and  Saturdays,  when  it  runs  till  one  o'clock,  be- 
cause of  the  afternoon  half -holidays.  At  12.15 
the  study-tables  and  bookcases  at  the  hall  must 
be  in  perfect  order.  The  boys  then  line  up  in  the  corridor, 
as  in  the  morning,  for  inspection,  rollcall  and  the  report  of 
the  Heifer.  By  eights  they  go  to  the  lavatory  to  make  ready 
for  dinner,  which  is  served  promptly  at  12.30.  It  consists 
to-day  of  boiled  rice  and  beef,  prepared,  I  am  told,  according 
to  a  recipe  brought  by  one  of  the  pupils  from  his  home  in 
Greece.  It  appears  to  be  relished  by  the  boys,  who  return 
their  plates  for  two  or  three  extra  portions.  Black  bread 
completes  the  list.  There  is  no  butter,  nothing  to  drink — 
not  even  water.  The  hour  after  dinner  most  of  the  boys 
spend  in  play  about  the  yard.  In  the  meantime  I  am  initiated 
into  the  mysteries  of  the  higher  circle.  The  masters  gather 
in  the  room  of  one  of  their  number,  who  serves  us  with  cof- 
fee, cakes  and  cigars.  Thus  a  pleasant  hour  is  spent  before 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      205 

the  afternoon  work  begins.  From  two  o'clock  till  four  reci- 
tations are  held,  as  in  the  morning ;  the  Vorschule,  however, 
is  free.  From  four  until  five  the  masters  are  in  conference 
over  the  final  examination  papers  of  the  first  class.  A  little 
before  five  the  boys  again  put  on  their  slippers,  and  are  then 
admitted  to  the  dining-room,  where  they  find  slices  of  black 
bread  spread  with  Pflaumenmuss,  a  sort  of 
prune  marmalade.  A  few,  by  order  of  their 
parents,  get  also  a  bowl  of  hot  milk.  No  especial  order  is 
kept  during  this  afternoon  meal —  Vesperbrot,  so-called  ;  some 
sit  at  the  tables  or  in  the  window-seats,  others  walk  about 
the  hallways.  Soon  the  bell  sounds  for  study.  At  6.45 
there  is  another  roll-call,  inspection,  etc.,  in  preparation  for 
supper. 

The  evening  meal  is  the  most  interesting  one,  perhaps  be- 
cause the  most  elaborate  of  the  day.  We  find  at  each  table 
a  large  platter  piled  high  with  sandwiches  of 
black  bread  and  smoked  herring.  Tea  and  milk 
are  served,  and  there  is  plenty  of  butter.  In  an  astonishingly 
short  time  the  platter  is  cleaned  and  replenished  again,  but 
this  time  with  corned-beef  in  place  of  herring.  "Whether  or 
not  the  change  is  a  concession  to  my  American  stomach  I 
cannot  say,  but  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  original  package 
bore  the  brand,  "Chicago  Corned-Beef."  At  the  end  of  the 
meal  the  head-master  notes  the  wants  of  the  boys :  first  in 
the  tailor's  book — No.  15  has  torn  his  coat,  33  wants  buttons 
on  his  vest,  while  nothing  short  of  cleaning.and  pressing  will 
suit  the  fastidious  taste  of  47 ;  next  is  the  shoemaker's  turn, 
and  various  are  the  orders  for  new  soles  and 
patches  that  he  gets ;  in  yet  another  book  are 
noted  the  numbers  of  those  who  last  night  disturbed  the 
peace  of  one  sleeping-room,  and  in  consequence  are  sentenced 
to  do  special  tasks  in  the  study-room  for  an  hour  after  their 
peaceful  comrades  are  in  bed.  Special  requests  from  the 
first  class  are  granted  those  who  wish  to  be  called  an  hour 
earlier  to-morrow  morning — the  dreaded  "final  "  is  only  one 
week  distant.  Still  another  book  goes  to  the  housekeeper. 


206  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

Ten  minutes  are  thus  spent  and  no  end  of  annoyance  saved 
for  twenty-four  hours  to  come. 

At  7.30  all   boys  go  to  the  shops.      Here  they  work  in 
five  divisions,  corresponding  in  general  to  the  school  years : 

the  beginners  are  busied  with  paper  work — box- 
Manual  Training.  .  C)  *  .  . 

making,  bookbinding,  etc.  ;  the  second  division 

uses  hand  fret-saws  ;  next  come  classes  in  wood-carving,  car- 
pentry and  wood-turning  in  order.  This  work,  which  is  in 
charge  of  master  workmen  from  the  town,  is  carried  on  only 
during  the  winter  on  Monday,  Tuesday  and  Friday  evenings. 
Some  good  pieces  are  turned  out ;  but  on  account  of  the  short 
time  of  training  and  the  somewhat  cramped  quarters,  the  re- 
sults are  mainly  beneficial  by  way  of  diversion  for  the  pupils. 
I  doubt  not  that  the  dormitories  will  be  the  more  quiet  to- 
night in  consequence  of  the  evening's  employment,  and  the 
poor  lads  who  must  put  in  an  extra  hour  of  penance  will  find 
their  tasks  the  more  trying.  The  bell  rings  at  nine  o'clock 
for  Abendlied.  Again  all  gather  about  the  piano  in  the  din- 
ing-room, and,  under  the  leadership  of  the  head-master's 
wife,  sing  the  evening  song,  a  single  stanza  of  a  well-known 
hymn.  The  boys  then  pass  in  single  file  before  Frau  Stoy 
and  the  teachers  present,  shaking  hands  with  all  and  wishing 
all  good-night.  Fifteen  minutes  later  the 

Good-Night.  &,  ,  .       .     .     ,  „, 

peaceful  part  of  the  community  is  in  bed.  The 
work  of  the  day  is  completed  with  the  final  inspection  of  the 
dormitories  by  the  two  teachers  who  sleep  with  the  boys  to- 
night. We  pass  from  room  to  room,  turn  down  the  lights 
and  say  "  Oute  NacM,"  the  signal  for  quiet.  That  the 
average  boy  will  gladly  heed  the  injunction  I  am  persuaded 
no  less  by  the  drowsy  replies  that  reach  our  ears  than  from 
my  own  feelings  at  the  prospect  of  coming  rest  after  a  long 
day  of  interesting  and  novel  experiences. 

The  order  for  Sunday  is  varied  by  rising  an  hour  later, 
church  from  9.30  to  11.00,  after  which  a  period  is  set  apart  in 
which  letters  must  be  written  home.     At  din- 
ner beer  is  served  to   those  who   wish    it,  all 
g  one  glass,  the  older  boys  two  glasses.     Sunday  after- 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      207 

noons,  as  on  the  Wednesday  and  Saturday  half -holidays,  the 
entire  school,  in  charge  of  one  or  two  masters,  takes  a  long 
walk  ;  on  week  days  the  excursion  rarely  lasts  longer  than 
two  hours,  but  on  Sunday  it  is  customary  to  prolong  it  to 
three  or  more.  In  summer  the  first  order  for  Sunday  morn- 
ing is  a  swim  in  the  river  at  six  o'clock  ;  on  week  days  the 
bathing  hour  is  4  P.M.,  and  every  boy  in  the  school  must 
join  in  the  sport  under  the  eye  of  the  master  and  the  teacher 
in  charge.  On  Wednesday  and  Saturday  evenings,  when 
swimming  is  not  possible,  the  boys  go  to  the  bath-room 
dressed  in  bathing-suits  and  there  enjoy  a  shower-bath  en 
masse.  The  head-master  takes  special  supervision  of  this 
hour.  On  retiring  each  boy  finds  on  his  bed  a  complete 
change  of  linen  and  underwear,  which  he  must  wear  on  the 
morrow.  Once  a  month  on  a  half -holiday  there  is  a  general 
hair-cutting,  the  barber  coming  to  the  hall,  after  which  each 
boy  takes  a  warm  tub-bath. 

The  Stoy  school  has  been  distinguished  from  the  days  of 
the  "  old  doctor,"  as  I  hear  him  called,  for  especial  attention 
to  bodily  development,  even  making  the  physi- 
cal training  as  important  an  item  in  the  curric-  Training 
ulum  as  any  other.  The  long  walks  above 
mentioned  on  three  days  of  the  week  tend  directly  to  this 
end.  The  summer  trips,  of  which  I  shall  speak  later,  are 
not  only  valuable  from  a  general  educational  point  of  view, 
but  they  serve  to  test  the  bodily  vigour  of  the  boys.  The 
preparation,  however,  which  enables  even  the  youngest  boys 
to  undergo  long  tramps  for  twenty  days  in  succession  con- 
sists mainly  in  class  exercises  in  gymnastics.  The  gymna- 
sium (Turnhalle)  is  fitted  up  with  parallel  and  horizontal 
bars,  and  such  apparatus  as  is  necessary  for  vaulting,  jump- 
ing, etc.  In  comparison  with  an  American  gymnasium  of 
the  better  class  the  outfit  is  scanty,  but  the  deficiency  is 
in  large  part  made  good  by  outdoor  apparatus.  Poles  and 
ladders  for  climbing,  all  framed  together,  and  bars  of  various 
kinds,  find  a  place  here.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  boys 
appreciate  most  what  is  at  all  times  accessible  to  them.  I 


208  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

have  seen  a  dozen  of  the  smaller  lads,  bareheaded  in  mid- 
winter, climbing  around  like  monkeys  on  the  highest  frame- 
work and  apparently  enjoying  the  fun  to  the  utmost,  despite 
the  slippery  rods  and  the  flying  snow.  Once  a  week  the  en- 
tire school  has  a  class  exercise  in  gymnastics  (Turnen),  and 
on  two  other  days  the  juniors  and  seniors  exercise  separately. 
For  this  purpose  the  scholars  are  divided  into  groups  of  six 
or  eight,  each  with  a  leader,  or  so-called  Vorturner.  In  a 
special  hour  on  Sunday  the  Vorturner  receive  directions  and 
drill  in  new  movements  which,  with  the  master's  help,  they 
are  expected  to  carry  out  in  the  exercises  of  the  week. 

It  was  my  pleasure  to  attend  the  Stoy  Turnfest  held  in 
August,  1893,  on  the  last  Sunday  of  the  semester.  The  student 

body  marched  into  the  play-ground  in  column 
Exhibition      °^  ^ours»  headed  by  a  drum  corps  and  buglers. 

Following  some  evolutions,  a  hearty  song  was 
sung  and  an  exhibition  given  on  the  parallel  bars  by  ten  of 
the  older  boys.  The  upper  school  then  separated  into  squads 
of  eight,  each  of  which  had  a  special  task,  e.g.,  vaulting, 
jumping,  exercise  on  horse,  buck  and  bars.  Calisthenics  and 
games  by  the  lower  school  called  out  some  applause.  But 
to  an  American  the  striking  feature  was  the  lack  of  all  com- 
petition; and,  indeed,  not  till  toward  the  end  of  the  pro- 
gram was  any  spirit  manifested,  and  that  only  in  running 
and  pole-climbing.  Nevertheless,  it  would  be  an  error  to 
conclude  that  the  boys  found  little  pleasure  in  the  perform- 
ance ;  on  the  contrary,  the  winners  received  as  hearty  con- 
gratulations as  one  could  wish,  and  the  prizes  and  laurel 
wreaths  were  as  proudly  displayed  as  if  won  in  that  heroic 
struggle  miscalled  foot-ball.  The  pent-up  enthusiasm  of  the 
day  seemed  to  find  full  expression  at  the  close  of  the  singing 
of  "  Deutschland,  Deutschland,  ilber  alles." 

I  am  told  that  there  are  field-sports  ;  but  I  have  seen  none 
of  them  save  a  flimsy  attempt  at  foot-ball,  a  recent  importa- 
tion from  England.  The  fact  is,  there  is  no  time  for  sports 
as  we  know  them  ;  there  are  no  two  hours  of  the  week  in 
succession  not  provided  for  in  the  school  schedule.  The 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      209 

theory  that  short  periods  of  alternate  work  and  rest  produce 
the  best  results  is  characteristically  German  ;  but,  as  one  of 
the  boys  remarked  to  me,  "  two  '  works'  to  one 
'  play '  is  nearer  the  truth."  There  is  as  little 
time  for  indoor  diversion  as  for  sports.  The 
absence  of  a  boys'  parlor  or  reading-room  testifies  to  this. 
But  in  music  they  find  a  solace  quite  unknown  in  American 
boys'  schools.  There  are  three  music  teachers  :  one  gives  his 
entire  time  to  the  violin,  piano  and  orchestra  ;  a  second  con- 
ducts the  singing,  and  a  third  gives  private  lessons  on  the 
'cello.  Twice  a  term  there  is  a  private  musical  recital,  fol- 
lowed by  dancing,  to  which  the  boys'  friends  are  invited  ; 
every  other  year  in  midwinter  a  public  recital  and  ball  are 
given  in  the  town  opera-house  ;  in  alternate  years  a  large 
masquerade  ball  is  held,  to  the  great  satisfaction  of  the  boys. 
The  birthdays  of  the  Emperor,  the  Grand  Duke  and  Luther 
are  also  publicly  celebrated — generally  by  speeches  interspersed 
with  music. 

The  great  event  of  the  year,  however,  the  one  around  which 
all  extraneous  interest  centres,  is  the  Schulreise  of  the  sum- 
mer holidays.  More  than  forty  years  ago  Pro- 

_  ,  .  .     *"      ,  .      SchoolJourneys. 

fessor  htoy  undertook,  with  the  boys  of  his 
training-school,  his  first  trip  into  the  Thuringian  forest. 
Thenceforth  it  was  made  a  veritable  part  of  the  curriculum, 
and  many  and  strange  are  the  stories  told  of  incidents  con- 
nected with  these  early  tours.  In  these  days  the  journeys 
are  more  pretentious,  owing  to  the  greater  depth  of  the 
patrons'  pockets.  Early  in  July  the  boarders,  with  the  entire 
corps  of  teachers,  spend  four  days  in  the  Thuringian  forest. 
In  1893  the  region  between  Blankenburg  and  Coburg,  in- 
cluding the  Schwarzerthal,  was  explored.  On  the  way  glass- 
works and  stone-quarries  were  visited,  and  a  day  was  spent  at 
the  famous  old  castle  in  Coburg.  But  the  real  pilgrimages 
come  in  August.  The  hall  is  divided  into  three  parties,  ac- 
cording to  age  and  strength  of  the  pupils,  and  to  each  party 
three  or  four  teachers  are  assigned.  The  first  division,  led 
by  the  head-master,  usually  goes  to  South  Germany  ;  a  few 

14 


210  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

days  are  spent  in  Munich,  with  the  special  view  of  studying 
architecture  and  the  rich  collections  of  the  city  museums, 
after  which  the  Bavarian  Alps  are  visited.  Last  August  the 
route  included  Nuremberg  and  Augsburg ;  thence  through 
Switzerland  into  Tyrol,  and  on  to  Venice  ;  thence  back  to 
Munich.  During  this  trip  of  three  weeks,  the  boys  were 
most  of  the  time  on  foot ;  travel  by  rail  was  of  course  neces- 
sary, but  was  indulged  in  sparingly.  The  total  expense  per 
boy  was  140  marks. 

The  customary  routes  for  the  second  division  are  (1)  the 

Harz  Mountains  and  the  Rhine  Valley  ;  (2)  Dresden,  Prague 

and  Bohemia,  or  (3)  the  Bohemian  forest,  along 

the  Danube  to  Passau,  Nuremberg,  home.     The 

third  party  goes  to  the  upper  valley  of  the  Saale,  and  thence 

through  the  forest  to  Eisenach. 

The  educational  value  of  these  journeys  lies  chiefly  in  the 
fact  that,  inasmuch  as  the  entire  hall  must  join  them,  a  gen- 
eral preparation  can  be   made  a  part  of  the 

Educational     school-work  for  a  year  in  advance,  and  the  re- 
value. • 

suits  summed  up  afterward  in  permanent  form. 

The  routes  are  carefully  planned  from  the  beginning  of  the 
fall  term  by  the  masters  in  conference.  Accurate  maps  are 
drawn  by  the  boys,  and  every  effort  is  made  to  arouse  the  sci- 
entific imagination.  The  history  of  art,  especially  in  archi- 
tecture, is  studied,  and  the  lessons  in  general  history  are  made 
to  supplement  the  special  means  of  preparation.  On  the  trip 
each  boy  makes  notes  and  sketches  of  the  chief  points  of  in- 
terest ;  these  are  worked  over  immediately  at  the  end  of  the 
trip,  that  nothing  be  lost.  Before  Christmas  it  is  expected 
that  he  will  write  a  complete  history  of  his  journey,  and,  as 
this  is  a  part  of  the  essay  writing  for  the  fall  term,  the  pupil 
profits  from  suggestions  from  his  teacher,  and  has  the  addi- 
tional stimulus  of  writing  on  his  own  experiences  and  making 
a  book  for  himself.  Some  of  these  accounts  are  most  interest- 
ing. I  have  seen  one  of  some  three  hundred  octavo  pages, 
bound  in  two  volumes,  written  by  a  member  of  the  second  di- 
vision ;  with  its  tasty  head-lines,  initial  letters  and  numerous 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS      211 

pen-and-ink  sketches,  it  is  really  artistic.  To  be  sure,  not  all 
the  boys  are  artists ;  but  most  of  them  can  show  a  good  ac- 
count of  what  they  have  seen. 

To  promote  good  fellowship  among  the  students,  the  school 
is  divided  into  five  clubs,  Kameradschaften,  to  each  of  which 
belong  two  or  three  teachers.  The  older  mem- 

*=  .  Student  Clubs. 

bers  of  a  club  are  in  a  way  responsible  for  the 
conduct  of  their  fellows.  Comrades  are  expected  at  all  times 
to  be  mutually  helpful,  and  it  is  a  point  of  honour  that  the 
strong  should  aid  the  weak.  Pin-money  for  the  boys  is  de- 
posited with  the  senior  masters,  according  to  Kameradscliaf- 
ten  ;  cash-books  must  be  kept  by  all,  and  those  of  the  juniors 
are  left  with  the  masters.  The  usual  allowance  varies  from 
one  mark  fifty  a  month  for  the  youngest  to  three  marks  for 
the  seniors. 

There  is  little  need,  as  we  have  seen,  for  boys  to  go  into 
town  on  errands,  and  the  permission  is  rarely  granted.  The 
desire  for  sweetmeats,  no  less  strong  here  than 

.  &  SideUghts. 

elsewhere,  is  scarcely  considered  a  legitimate  ex- 
cuse ;  but  with  true  Yankee  ingenuity  a  young  friend  of  mine 
— I  hope  he  will  not  count  me  an  informer,  after  such  a  lapse 
of  time — is  doing  a  flourishing  business  as  a  result  of  the  ban. 
These  operations,  confined  as  they  are  to  imports — whether  on 
the  theory  of  free-trade  or  tariff  for  revenue  only,  I  am  not 
informed — undoubtedly  contribute  not  a  little  to  the  commer- 
cial training  of  all  concerned.  But  mischief  is  not  rampant 
among  the  Stoy  boys  ;  indeed,  one  must  look  long  and  closely 
to  detect  signs  of  the  ordinary  human  weaknesses.  This  is 
due  in  part  to  the  thorough  supervision,  but  a  still  more 
potent  cause  is  that  these  boys  are  Germans — and  Germans 
are  born  to  obey. 

No  feature  of  German  school  life  calls  out  more  criticism 
from  foreigners  than  the  seemingly  exacting  discipline,  espe- 
cially of  Prussian  schools.     Good  masters  have 
remarked  to  me — and  I  am  inclined  to  credit 
the  statement — that  the  average  school-boy  considers  an  amia- 
ble teacher  as  a  prodigy  fit  only  for  girls'  schools.     The  all- 


212  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

pervading  military  spirit  tends  in  a  different  direction.  Most 
boys  are  anxious  to  serve  in  the  army,  if  they  can  do  it  as 
volunteers.  Something  by  way  of  a  uniform  and  brass  but- 
tons is  the  delight  of  the  youngsters,  and  as  they  grow  older 
their  favourite  game  of  "  war-play  "  is  barely  left  off  before 
the  days  of  actual  service.  But  there  is  a  wide  difference  be- 
tween a  conscript  and  a  volunteer  :  the  one  serves  two  years 
at  no  expense  to  himself  ;  it  costs  the  other  at  least  fifteen 
hundred  marks  for  the  privilege  of  wearing  the  "  Emperor's 
coat "  one  year.  It  is  not  the  difference  in  length  of  service 
that  begets  the  eager  volunteer,  nor  yet  the  desire  to  expend 
a  sum  greater  than  is  necessary  for  a  year's  attendance  at  the 
university  ;  but  above  all  considerations  stands  social  rank. 
To  have  had  ten  years  of  successful  schooling  counts  for 
nothing  when  reckoned  with  that  higher  distinction  of  be- 
longing to  a  family  that  can  afford  the  ton  years  of  training 
and  the  fifteen  hundred  marks  besides.  There  it  is  in  a  nut- 
shell !  Not  only  the  boy  himself,  but  his  entire  family  as 
well  are  concerned  in  his  success  at  school.  The  final  exami- 
nation must  be  passed  at  all  hazards,  and  no  means  thereto, 
however  severe  or  exacting,  if  successful  in  the  past,  will  be 
repudiated  by  the  patron.  The  boy  can  afford  to  take  no 
chances.  The  result  is  an  obedience  bordering  on  servility. 
It  is  a  factor  of  prime  importance  in  estimating  correctly  the 
peculiarities  of  German  schools,  and  especially  must  it  bi 
reckoned  with  in  the  boarding-school.  The  original  causes 
are  to  be  sought  in  the  social  and  national  life  rather  than  m 
the  personality  of  the  teacher. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — Jahresberichte  and  announcements  of  Schul« 
pforta,  St.  Afra  in  Meissen,  Grimnia,  Rossleben  and  the  titoy'sche 
Erziehungs-Anstalt  in  Jena. 


CHAPTEK  XI 

INSTRUCTION  IN  RELIGION 

'•'  SEE  to  it  that  your  children  above  all  things  are  instructed 
in  divine  things,  that  you  first  dedicate  them  to  God  and  then 
to  worldly  matters,"  was  Luther's  advice  to  the 
German  people.  And  down  to  the  present  cen- 
tury  the  chief  end  of  all  school  teaching  was  the 
training  of  young  men  for  the  ministry  and  of  a  laity  that 
would  accept  their  leadership.  Even  under  a  national  school 
system  the  principal  function  of  the  German  school  is  offi- 
cially declared  to  be  the  making  of  "  God-fearing,  patriotic, 
self-supporting  citizens."  It  is  recognised  that  the  harmo- 
nious development  of  the  human  mind  means  more  than  merely 
intellectual  acuteness  ;  the  heart  must  grow  with  the  head,  if 
the  whole  man  is  to  be  developed.  A  character  lacking  re- 
ligious knowledge,  principles  and  ideals  is  not  an  ideal  char- 
acter. Too  much  of  our  modern  civilization  is  founded  on 
Judaism  and  Christianity  to  make  it  possible  to  dispense  with 
a  knowledge  of  these  religions,  and  too  much  is  involved  in 
the  religious  life  to  make  it  safe  for  the  state  to  disregard 
spiritual  training.  On  utilitarian  grounds,  therefore,  if  there 
were  no  better  reasons,  the  German  states  insist  on  the  teach- 
ing of  religion  in  all  elementary  and  secondary  schools. 

It  never  occurs  to  a  German  that  there  could 

,  ,.,  ,  ,,.  ,..  .  Religion  an 

be  a  valid  reason  for  excluding   religious  in-    Essential  Part 
struction  from  the  public  schools.     He  would      of  German 
as  soon  think  of  eliminating  the  entire  national 
literature,   as   the   Bible,   from   the   school    curricula.      As 

literature,  if  nothing  else,  he  would  accord  it  a  prominent 

213 


214  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

place.     But  in  protestant  Germany  the  Bible,  Luther's  Cat- 

echisnis  and  Luther's  Hymns  are  reverenced  above  all  books  ; 

to  the  masses  they  are  constant  reminders  of  their  religious 

liberties.     And  Luther's  words  are  words  of  life  to  his  people. 

The  fact  that  there  are  fewer  religious  sects  in  Germany 

than  in  America  accounts  in  part  for  the  retention  of  religious 

instruction  long  after  the  separation  of  school 

Three  Religious   and  churoh>     There  are  practically  only  three 

Denominations.  .  J          J 

denominations  :  Lutheran,  Catholic  and  Jew- 
ish. Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  total  population  are  adherents 
of  the  Evangelical  Church ;  roughly  speaking,  they  make  up 
all  central  Germany.  The  Eoman  Catholics  are  next  in  im- 
portance, and  are  to  be  found  especially  in  Bavaria,  along  the 
Ehine  and  in  the  extreme  eastern  part  of  the  empire.  Jews 
are  everywhere,  but  particularly  in  the  cities. 

The  historical  relations  of  church  and  school  can  still  be 
traced  in  the  designation  of  every  public  secondary  school 
as  protestant,  catholic  or  Jewish,  according  to 
Teachers  ^he  confession  of  the  majority  of  the  scholars. 
In  a  protestant  school,  for  example,  the  di- 
rector and  most  of  the  teachers  will  be  members  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Church,  and  the  instruction  of  the  classes  in  religion 
will  be  given  by  the  regular  teachers.  But  in  case  there  are 
at  least  twenty-five  children  of  another  faith  in  the  school,  a 
class  must  be  formed  for  them  and  a  teacher  engaged  who  be- 
longs to  their  church.  The  teacher  may  be  a  member  of  the 
regular  staff,  if  he  has  a  certificate  for  the  subject ;  or,  what 
is  more  likely,  a  local  minister  will  be  called  in  and  installed 
as  special  teacher,  in  the  employ  of  the  state.  In  the  large 
cities  it  generally  happens  that  one  higher  school  will  be 
Jewish,  another  catholic  and  the  rest  protestant.  Whenever 
there  are  two  or  more  higher  schools  of  different  confessions, 
the  dissenting  pupils  in  one  will  be  sent  to  another  school  for 
instruction  in  religion. 

It  is  the  constitutional  prerogative  of  every  parent  that  his 
children  shall  not  be  compelled  to  attend  religious  instruc- 
tion contrary  to  his  own  belief,  and  that  no  child  shall  be 


INSTRUCTION  IN  RELIGION  215 

denied  admission  to  the  public  schools  on  religious  grounds. 
On   the  other  hand,  every  child  in   the  secondary  schools 
must  receive  some  instruction  in  religion ;  if 
not  received  in  the  schools,  the  parents  must       Religious 
provide  for  it  privately  in  a  systematic  way  and       Required, 
from  regularly  authorized  instructors. 

General-superintendents  of  the  Evangelical  Church,  catho- 
lic bishops  and  Jewish  rabbis  are  permitted  at  stated  times 
to  inspect  the  religious  instruction  of  their  re- 
spective confessions,  but  they  have  no  right  to 
interfere  in  any  way  with  the  work  of  the  teach- 
ers. If  they  have  criticisms  to  offer,  they  must  address  them 
to  the  provincial  school-boards,  who  are  authorized  to  take 
such  action  as  may  seem  expedient.  While  the  church  has 
no  direct  control  of  religious  instruction  in  secondary  schools, 
this  right  of  supervision  puts  the  church  in  a  position  to 
know  what  is  being  taught  and  indirectly  to  direct  its  course. 
Moreover,  one  school  inspector  in  each  province  is  generally 
a  catholic,  which  insures  a  respectful  hearing  of  the  views  of 
the  minority.  Inasmuch  as  the  state  church  of  Prussia  is 
evangelical,  it  follows  that  the  religious  instruction  in  the 
protestant  schools  is  more  directly  under  state  control  than 
is  the  teaching  in  other  schools.  But  no  instruction  is  given 
without  official  sanction.  The  government  appoints  all  teach- 
ers, prescribes  the  courses  of  study,  approves  the  text-books 
and  tests  the  results  by  examination. 

Teachers  of  religion  are  trained,  certificated  and  appointed 
like  all  other  teachers  ;  they  enjoy  the  same  rank,  honours 
and  emoluments  as  other  teachers.  In  fact, 
unusual  significance  is  attached  to  these  posi- 
tions.  Instructors  in  religion  must  not  only 
be  scholars  and  skilful  teachers,  but  they  must  also  possess 
high  moral  character  and  gentlemanly  bearing,  such  as  will 
exercise  an  unconscious  influence  for  good  over  the  young. 
The  examining  boards  and  school  inspectors  are  specially 
warned  to  pass  no  candidate  who  does  not  possess  these 
characteristics  in  an  eminent  degree.  The  ability  to  lead 


216  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

and  inspire  boys  and  young  men  is  the  essential  prerequisite 
to  this  office.  A  ministerial  rescript  of  1826  admonishes  all 
teachers  of  religion  not  to  forget  the  responsibilities  of  their 
position.  They  are  not  merely  to  train  the  intellect,  but  to 
educate  their  pupils  to  high  Christian  citizenship  ;  it  is  their 
duty  to  inculcate  not  simply  a  pleasing  theory  of  morals,  but 
faith  in  the  living  God  and  in  Christ  as  the  Saviour  of  men. 
The  text-books  used  must  express  correctly  the  doctrines  of 
the  Evangelical  Church,  which  make  religion  the  basis  of  all 
morals,  and  which  represent  a  living  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  and 
salvation  through  Him  as  the  end  to  be  attained.1 

Teachers  of  religion  are  not  confined  to  this  subject  alone. 
Eeligion  may  be  taken  as  a  major  or  minor  in  the  state  ex- 
amination, like  other  subjects,  and  the  certifi- 

Certiflcation.  . '  .  J 

cate  received  determines  the  grades  in  which 
instruction  may  be  given.  In  the  Friedrichs- Gymnasium  in 
Berlin,  nine  out  of  twenty-four  members  of  the  faculty  teach 
religion  ;  two  of  the  nine  have  made  religion  their  major 
subject.  The  subjects  which  are  naturally  allied  with  re- 
ligion are  German,  the  classical  languages  and  history. 

The  following  is  the  course  in  religion,  as  outlined  in  the 
Prussian  Course  Program  °^  the  Friedrichs-Gymnasium  in  Ber- 
of  study.       lin,  for  the  year  1895-1896  : 

Sexta:  3  hours.  Selections  from  the  Old  Testament,  es- 
pecially the  early  history,  the  patriarchs,  Moses,  David,  Elias 
and  Elisha,  according  to  the  Schulz-Klix,  Biblisches-Lese- 
buch.  Selections  from  the  New  Testament  relating  to  the 
birth,  resurrection  and  ascension  of  Christ.  Explanation  of 
the  Christmas,  Easter  and  Whitsuntide  holidays.  Learning 
of  the  first  part  of  the  Catechism,  with  Luther's  exposition. 
Drill  on  biblical  quotations  and  four  church  hymns  (Nos.  6, 
1,  33,  35  in  Lesebuch). 

Quinta :  2  hours.  Selections  from  the  New  Testament 
relating  to  the  life  of  Christ.  Learning  of  second  part  of 
Catechism,  with  Luther's  exposition.  Biblical  quotations. 
Review  of  the  Catechism  and  hymns  learned  in  Sexta,  and  the 
learning  of  four  new  hymns  (Nos.  8,  30,  22,  25  in  Lesebucli}. 

1  Wiese-Kubler,  Verordnungcn  und  Gesctze,  I.,  pp.  162-3. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  RELIGION  217 

Quarto, :  2  hours.  Winter — Reading  of  the  more  impor- 
tant parts  of  the  New  Testament :  The  Sermon  on  the  Mount, 
Parables  (Matt,  xiii.,  Luke  xv.).  Travels  of  the  Apostle 
Paul.  Review  of  the  life  of  Christ,  at  the  holiday  time.  The 
books  of  the  Bible.  Practice  in  quotations.  Summer — 
Reading  of  more  important  parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  with 
especial  reference  to  the  prophets,  and  part  of  Apocrypha. 
Geography  of  Palestine.  Throughout  the  year  a  study  of  the 
third  part  of  Catechism,  with  Luther's  exposition  ;  memoriz- 
ing of  Parts  IV.  and  V.  Review  of  the  Catechism  and  hymns 
learned  in  Qninta  and  Sexta.  Drill  on  four  new  hymns 
(Nos.  2,  15,  18,  24  in  Lesebuch),  and  Psalms  xxiii.,  xlvi.  and 
cxxxix.,  1-12,  23-24. 

Untertertia :  2  hours.  Reading  of  selections  from  the  Old 
Testament  relating  to  the  history  of  the  Israelites  ;  also  from 
the  Psalms  and  Job.  History  of  the  church  calendar  and 
the  significance  of  the  church  festivals.  Review  of  the  Cate- 
chism and  biblical  selections,  and  memorizing  of  hymns 
(Nos.  12,  28,  26,  21  in  Lesebuch],  scriptural  texts  and  Psalms 
xc.,  ciii.,  1-13,  and  cxxvi. 

Obertertia  :  2  hours.  Selections  from  the  New  Testament,  • 
especially  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  and  the  Parables.  The 
history  of  the  Reformation,  in  connection  with  the  life  of 
Luther.  Review  of  the  Catechism,  biblical  quotations  and 
hymns  already  learned.  Discussion  and  explanation  of  the 
sacraments,  in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. 

Untersecunda :  2  hours.  Exegesis  of  the  Gospel  accord- 
ing to  St.  Matthew.  Biblical  antiquities  and  literature. 
Reading  of  selections  from  the  prophets,  Job  and  Psalms,  and 
the  story  of  the  crucifixion  according  to  Mark,  Luke  and 
John.  Comprehensive  review  of  the  Catechism  and  of  the 
selections  and  hymns  already  learned. 

Obersecunda :  2  hours.  Apostolic  history.  Epistle  to  the 
Philippians.  The  church  calendar.  Review  of  the  Cate- 
chism, biblical  selections,  hymns  and  Psalms  previously  mem. 
orized. 

Unterprima :  2  hours.  Summer — Chief  epochs  in  church 
history.  Christianity  and  the  heathen  powers.  Dissension 
in  the  Apostolic  Church.  The  most  important  Church 
Fathers — Augustine  and  Pelagius  and  Boniface.  Rise  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  Scholasticism  and  mysticism  :  their 
bearing  on  the  Reformation.  The  most  important  tendencies 
in  the  subsequent  development  of  the  Evangelical  Church. 


218  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

Pietism  (Spener  and  Francke),  the  Moravians,  home  missions, 
sects.  Winter — Exegesis  of  the  Gospel  according  to  St.  John. 
Oberprima :  %  hours.  Winter — Exegesis  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans.  Summer  —  Dogmatic  Theology  and  Christian 
Ethics,  in  connection  with  Art.  i.-xvi.,  xviii.  and  xx.  of  the 
Augustinian  Confession.  Outline  history  of  the  church  hymns. 

The   course   of   study  is   so   arranged   that   in   the   lower 
classes  special  attention  is  given  to  Bible  stories,  mostly  bio- 
graphical, and  to  memorizing  church  hymns, 
Contents.  J 

the  catechism  and  selected  scriptural  texts. 
The  middle  grades  aim  to  present  a  tolerably  complete  notion 
of  the  Christian  religion,  as  expounded  by  Luther,  some 
church  history  and  the  significance  of  the  forms  and  cere- 
monies of  the  church.  Although  after  Untertertia  no  more 
formal  memorizing  is  required,  frequent  reviews  help  the 
pupils  to  retain  what  they  have  previously  acquired.  In  the 
upper  grades  the  character  of  the  work  is  somewhat  changed. 
A  general  study  of  the  history,  antiquities  and  literature  of 
Holy  Writ  and  a  history  of  the  Christian  Church  are  intro- 
duced. Special  attention  is  given  in  all  classes  to  broad  read- 
ing, research  and  exegesis,  not  of  isolated  passages,  but  of 
complete  parts  and  books. 

The  methods  of  teaching  religion  are  practically  the  same 
as  those  employed  in  teaching  German  and  history.  The 
teacher  tells  the  story  of  the  lesson,  or  has  it 
read  by  the  class.  Then  follows  a  discussion 
by  question  and  answer  of  the  chief  points,  with  a  view  to 
bringing  out  clearly  the  ethical  or  religious  truths  involved. 
The  lesson  generally  centres  around  some  scriptural  text, 
which  is  committed  to  memory  as  an  index  of  the  whole. 
This  practice  accounts  for  the  great  amount  of  memorizing 
generally  required  in  the  lower  grades.  In  1871  the  de- 
partment of  education  recommended  the  following  list  of 
scriptural  texts,  to  be  learned  in  connection  with  Luther's 
Catechism  : 1 

Sexta:  2  Tim.  iii.  15-17;  John  xvii.  17;  Matt.  xxii.  37- 
1  Wiese-Kublcr,  Verordnungen  und  Gesetze,  I.,  pp.  165-6. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  RELIGION  219 

40,  x.  28  ;  1  John  v.  3  ;  Ps.  xxxvii.  5  ;  Jas.  iii.  9-10 ;  Matt, 
v.  37 ;  Gal.  vi.  7-8 ;  Ps.  1.  15  ;  Ex.  xx.  9-10  ;  Luke  xi.  28  ; 
Eph.  vi.  1-2;  Prov.  xxx.  17;  Rom.  xiii.  1;  gau±Soa^  to  ^ 

TTi  •  •  •        ^  MI          Tl      1  rk       ^  Tfc  T      J_  r\  -t        DCJeCllUHB  IO  DC 

Hebrews  xni.  17 ;  Eph.  v.  3-o  ;  Matt.  v.  8  ;  1      Memorized. 
Tim.  vi.  9-10  ;  Hebrews  xiii.  16  ;  Eph.  iv.  25  ; 
Matt.  xii.  36 ;  Jas.  i.  13-15  ;  Gal.  v.  24  ;  1  John  ii.  15-17  ; 
Matt.  xxvi.  41. 

Quinta :  Eph.  ii.  8-9  ;  Hebrews  xi.  1  ;  Rom.  i.  19-20  ; 
Rom.  ii.  14-15  ;  John.  iv.  24 ;  Ps.  cxv.  3  ;  Ps.  xc.  2 ;  1  John 
iv.  16  ;  Rom.  xi.  33-34 ;  Ps.  cxxxix.  1-4  ;  Ps.  v.  5  ;  Jer.  ii. 
19 ;  2  Cor.  xiii.  13 ;  Ps.  civ.  24 ;  Ps.  xxxiii.  13-15  ;  Matt.  x. 
29-31 ;  Isa.  xlv.  7  ;  Hebrews  i.  14  ;  1  Peter  v.  8-9 ;  Rom.  v. 
12  ;  Gen.  viii.  21 ;  Eph.  iv.  18  ;  John  iii.  16  ;  1  Tim.  i.  15  ; 
Acts  iv.  12  ;  John  x.  30  ;  Matt,  xxviii.  18  ;  Matt,  xxviii.  20  ; 
Isa.  liii.  4-5  ;  1  Peter  i.  18-19  ;  1  Cor.  xv.  17  ;  Rom.  iii.  24- 
25  ;  Phil.  ii.  12-13 ;  Ps.  Ii.  5-6  ;  Acts  xvi.  30-31  ;  Gal.  v. 
6  ;  1  Tim.  iv.  8  ;  John  xv.  26  ;  Ps.  cxliii.  10 ;  1  Cor.  xii.  3  ; 
2  Cor.  v.  17  ;  John  iii.  3  ;  Hebrews  ix.  27 ;  2  Cor.  v.  10 ; 
John  xi.  25-26  ;  1  Cor.  xv.  42-44 ;  I  John  iii.  2. 

Quarto, :  1  Tim.  ii.  1-2  ;  Ps.  ciii.  1-4  ;  Ps.  cvi.  1  ;  Matt. 
xv.  8  ;  John  xvi.  23  ;  Rom.  xiv.  17-18  ;  Matt.  vi.  33  ;  Matt, 
vi.  14-15  ;  1  Cor.  x.  13  ;  Rom.  vi.  3  ;  Gal.  iii.  26-27  ;  Acts 
ii.  38  ;  1  Cor.  x.  16  ;  John  vi.  53  ;  1  Cor.  xi.  27-29 ;  Ps. 
cxxxix.  23-24  ;  1  John  i.  9. 

The  first  period  of  the  school-day  is  regularly  given  up  to 
the  classes  in  religion  ;  in  case  of  conflict,  the  director  may 
use  the  succeeding  period.  In  1826  a  prayer 
was  ordered  at  the  beginning  -and  end  of  every 
school  session,  but  in  practice  the  morning  prayer  is  all  that 
is  required.  Prayer  is  offered  at  the  opening  of  all  special 
exercises,  and  once  a  week,  generally  Monday  mornings,  the 
entire  school  assembles  in  the  auditorium  for  religious  exer- 
cises. The  directors  of  all  private  schools  are  required  to 
hold  morning  and  evening  prayers,  say  grace  at  meals,  attend 
public  worship  with  their  pupils  and  join  with  them  in  the 
church  sacraments. 

When  pupils  reach  the  age  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  years,  it 
is  expected  that  they  will  present  themselves  for  confirmation 
at  Easter  time.  For  some  time  previous  to  this  important 
step  each  pupil  receives  special  instruction  from  his  pastor,  as 


220  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

well  as  chat  prescribed  for  the  school.     A  rescript  of  1838 

declares  that  a  candidate  for  confirmation  should  be  familiar 

with  (1)  the  first  five  parts  of  the  Small  Gate 

Confirmation.         .  .          '          rr<         ~  ,  ..     , 

chism,  the  Ten  Commandments,  the  Apostles 
Creed,  the  Lord's  Prayer  ;  (2)  the  titles,  order  and  principal 
contents  of  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament ;  (3) 
the  parts  of  the  Bible  upon  which  the  important  doctrines 
of  the  Christian  religion  are  founded,  and  (4)  the  more  com- 
mon church  hymns.  The  special  instruction  preparatory 
to  confirmation  is  not  a  part  of  the  regular  school  work  ; 
nevertheless,  directors  are  expected  to  keep  free  for  this  in- 
struction in  the  middle  grades  the  hour  from  eleven  to  twelve 
on  two  days  of  the  week,  and  teachers  are  required  to  reduce 
the  amount  of  home  study  in  these  grades  during  the  four 
weeks  preceding  Easter.  It  is  at  this  point  where  church 
and  school  come  into  closest  touch  ;  through  the  confirma- 
tion class,  the  local  clergy  learn  more  of  the  religious  in- 
struction given  in  the  schools  than  from  any  amount  of 
official  inspection. 

The  subject-matter  of  instruction   in  religion  is  mainly 

from  the  Bible,  Luther's  Catechism  and  the  church  hymns. 

No  text-books  in  German  schools  have  been  so 

subject-Matter    long  in  use  as  these,  and  no  others  are  consid- 

of  Instruction. 

ered  so  important  to-day.  It  should  be  noted, 
however,  that  an  expurgated  edition  of  the  Bible  is  always 
used — never  a  complete  edition.  But  even  with  the  youngest 
children  whatever  is  used  is  kept  in  Luther's  own  words.  A 
Child's  Bible,  or  Family  Bible,  is  always  Luther's  Bible  with 
certain  passages  omitted.  Educators  believe  that  the  child 
and  youth  are  not  prepared  to  understand  the  significance  of 
all  Holy  Writ ;  the  selections  used,  therefore,  must  be  adapted 
to  the  pupil's  mind,  and  arranged  in  such  a  way  as  will  best 
serve  the  ends  in  view. 

There  are  many  Comprehensive  text-books  in  nse  which 
seek  to  place  before  the  learner  all  the  material  for  his  study 
of  religion.  I  have  before  me  the  Schulz-Klix  Biblischqs 
Lesebuch,  which  is  referred  to  in  the  outline  above  given,  and 


INSTRUCTION  Ilv  RELIGION  221 

which  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  of  r.ll  such  books.  Its 
popularity  is  seen  in  its  enormous  sale  ;  up  to  1896  it  had 
passed  through  fifty-three  stereotyped  editions. 
Twenty  editions  have  been  issued  since  1879. 
This  book  is  divided  into  three  parts  :  (1)  Selections  from  the 
Old  Testament,  141  pages  ;  (2)  selections  from  the  New  Tes- 
tament, 64  pages ;  (3)  general  commentary,  which  includes 
(a)  biblical  information,  4  pages  ;  (b)  chief  facts  in  the  geogra- 
phy and  history  of  the  Holy  Land,  6  pages  ;  (c)  history  of  the 
Old  Testament,  10  pages  ;  (d)  history  of  the  Jews  to  70  B.C.,  6 
pages  ;  (e)  summary  of  New  Testament  teachings,  18  pages  ; 
(f)  church  history,  6  pages ;  (g)  Luther's  Small  Catechism, 
15  pages ;  (h)  the  church  calendar,  5  pages ;  and  (i)  thirty- 
six  church  hymns,  20  pages. 

The  selections  from  the  Bible  are  intended  to  present  a  con- 
tinuous narrative  from  Genesis  to  Revelation.     The  list  of 
topics  is  in  itself  so  instructive  that  I  present 
herewith,  as  an  example  of  the  whole,  a  com-      0^lb'!cal 

Selections. 

plete  outline  of  the  New  Testament  selections: 

The  Birth  of  Christ,  Luke  ii.  Infancy  of  Christ,  Matt.  ii. 
The  Boyhood  of  Christ,  Luke  ii.  The  Baptism  by  John, 
Matt.  iii.  Testimony  of  John,  John  i.  The 
Temptation,  Matt.  iv".  Jesus  Begins  His  Min-  FromtheNew 
istry,  Mark  i.-ii.  The  Sermon  on  the  Mount, 
Matt.  iv.  23-25,  v.-vii.  The  Centurion,  Matt.  viii.  Nicode- 
mus,  John  iii.  The  Samaritan  Woman,  John  iv.  The 
Woman  of  Canaan,  Matt.  xv.  The  Woman's  Faith,  Luke  vii. 
The  Disciples,  Matt,  ix.,  x.  John  the  Baptist,  Matt,  xi., 
Mark  vi.  The  Parables  :  (1)  The  Sower,  Luke  viii.  ;  (2) 
The  Tares,  Matt.  xiii.  ;  (3)  The  Labourers  in  the  Vineyard, 
Matt,  xix.,  xx.;  (4)  The  Prodigal  Son,  Luke  xv.  ;  (5)  The 
Lost  Sheep,  Matt,  xviii.  ;  (6)  The  Rich  Man,  Luke  xvi.  ;  (7) 
The  Pharisee,  Luke  xviii.  ;  (8)  The  Good  Samaritan,  Luke 
x.  ;  (9)  Tho  Great  Supper,  Luke  xiv.  ;  (10)  The  Wedding 
Dress,  Matt.  xxii.  ;  (11)  The  Ten  Virgins,  Matt.  xxv.  ;  (12) 
The  Talents,  Matt.  xxv.  The  Sayings  of  Jesus  :  (1)  Who 
is  the  Greatest  in  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  ?  Matt,  xviii.  ;  (2) 
Jesus,  the  Children's  Friend,  Mark  x.  ;  (3)  The  Rich  Young 
Man,  Matt.  xix.  ;  (4)  The  Worthlessness  of  Earthly  Goods, 
Luke  xii.  ;  (5)  Warning  against  Arrogance,  Luke  xiv.  ;  (6) 


222  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

The  Fig  Tree,  Luke  xiii.  ;  (7)  Martha  and  Mary,  Luke  x.  ; 
(8)  Christ,  His  Mission,  Matt.  xx.  ;  (9)  The  Kingdom,  Luke 
xvii.  ;  (10)  The  Widow's  Mite,  Luke  xxi.  ;  (11)  Zacchseus, 
Luke  xix.  The  Miracles  of  Jesus :  (1)  The  Marriage,  John 
ii.  ;  (2)  The  Draught  of  Fishes,  Luke  v.  ;  (3)  Jesus  Stills  the 
Tempest,  Matt.  viii.  ;  (4)  The  Healing  of  the  Dumb,  Mark 
vii.  ;  (5)  At  the  Pool  of  Bethesda,  John  v.  ;  (6)  The  Feeding 
of  the  Four  Thousand,  Mark  viii.  ;  (7)  The  Feeding  of  the 
Five  Thousand,  John  vi.  ;  (8)  Restoring  the  Blind  to  Sight, 
John  ix.  ;  (9)  Raising  the  Widow's  Son,  Luke  vii.  ;  (10) 
The  Daughter  of  Jairus,  Mark  v.  ;  (11)  The  Outcasts,  Luke 
xvii.  ;  (12)  Lazarus,  John  xi.  The  Pharisees  and  Sadducees, 
Matt,  xv.,  xvi.,  xxii.  The  Entry  into  Jerusalem,  Matt,  xxi., 
Luke  xix.  Jesus  Purges  the  Temple,  Luke  xix.  Jesus  and 
the  High  Priest,  Luke  xx.  The  Last  Supper>  Luke  xxii. 
The  Washing  of  the  Feet,  John  xiii.  The  Designation  of  His 
Betrayer,  John  xiii.  Jesus  in  Gethsemane,  Matt.  xxvi.  Be- 
fore the  High  Priest,  Matt.  xxvi.  Before  Pilate  and  Herod, 
Luke  xxiii.,  John  xviii.-xix.  Crucifixion,  Luke  xxiii.,  John 
xix.  Jesus'  Words  on  the  Cross,  Luke  xxiii.,  John  xix., 
Matt,  xxvii.  The  Burial  of  Jesus,  John  xix.,  Matt,  xxvii. 
The  Resurrection,  Mark  xvi.  The  Journey  to  Emmaus, 
Luke  xxiv.  Jesus  Appears  to  His  Disciples,  Luke  xxiv.  The 
Doubting  Thomas,  John  xx.  The  Last  Words  of  the  Lord 
to  His  Disciples,  Mark  xvi.  The  Ascension,  Acts  i.  The 
Outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Acts  ii.  Peter's  AVonderful 
Work,  Acts  iii.  Persecution  of  the  Apostles,  Acts  iv.  An- 
anias and  Sapphira,  Acts  iv.,  v.  The  Apostle  in  Prison,  Acts 
v.  Stephen,  Acts  vi.,  vii.  Mission  of  Paul,  Acts  ix.  Cor- 
nelius, Acts  ix.,  x.  Meeting  of  the  Apostles,  Acts  xi.,  xv. 

Under  the  title  Die    Christliclien    Confessionen,  Schulz- 
Klix  gives  a  short   sketch   of  the  origin   of  the   Christian 
Church  ;  its  divisions  into  the  Greek  Catholic, 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  branches ; 
the  history  and  contents  of  the  Apostolic,  the  Nicean  and  the 
Athanasian  creeds ;  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformed  and  Lu- 
theran denominations  ;   their  origin,  development  and  union 
in  the  Evangelical  Church ;  and  the  principal  articles  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession. 

But  what  of  the  results  ?     Six  years  of  such  a  book  as  I 
have  been  quoting,  and  three  years  besides  in  a  study  of  church 


INSTRUCTION  IN  RELIGION  223 

history,  dogmatic  theology  and  Christian  ethics,  ought  to  bear 
magnificent  fruit.     Undoubtedly  in  many  cases  the  results 
are  all  that  should  be  expected,  but  this  cannot 
be  said  of  all.    The  government  is  undoubtedly 
right  in  seeking  to  attract  to  this  work  men  of  striking  per- 
sonality and  deep  religious  faith.     But  it  need  not  be  said 
that  this  ideal  is  hard  to  realize.     And  when  teachers  are  at 
fault,  one  must  expect  to  find  faults  in  their  work. 

A  well-known  provincial  school  inspector  stated  the  case  to 
me  somewhat  in  the  following  manner :  It  is  certainly  true 
that  a  very  great  change  has  come  over  the 

.  J    ?      ,  rp,         ,  Criticisms. 

country  in  the  last  twenty  years.  The  theory 
of  evolution  in  the  natural  world  has  given  rise  to  critical 
schools  in  history  and  theology.  Young  men  have  been  leaving 
the  universities  for  years  with  these  critical  notions  in  their 
heads,  and  the  definite  amount  of  religious  knowledge  which 
was  once  supposed  to  be  essential  to  every  man's  education 
has  been  steadily  growing  less.  Not  a  third  as  much  is  re- 
quired to-day  as  was  insisted  on  thirty  years  ago.  The  teach- 
ers are  not  so  certain  in  their  beliefs ;  the  feeling  of  uncer- 
tainty in  the  teacher  begets  uncertain  results  in  the  class-room. 
Pupils  consequently  do  not  take  the  same  interest  in  the 
subject.  Many  of  them  say  openly  that  the  teacher  is  obliged 
to  teach  them  what  he  himself  does  not  believe.  At  any  rate, 
the  results  are  unfortunate  and  are  not  growing  better.  It  is 
the  outcome  of  a  bad  philosophy  which  has  been  abroad  in  the 
land  for  the  last  half-century. 

In  the  Kreuzzeitung  of  November  25,  1894,  I  find  this 
scathing  arraignment  of  German  religious  life  :  "  As  matters 
stand  at  present,"  it  was  said,  "  we  have  a  double- 
entry  system  of  spiritual  book-keeping.  For  the 
masses,  so  far  as  they  attend  the  elementary 
schools,  and,  theoretically,  for  pupils  of  secondary  schools  as 
well,  we  have  instruction  in  religion  on  the  lines  of  positive 
Christianity,  in  the  name  and  by  the  authority  of  the  state. 
In  the  universities,  on  the  contrary,  where  the  young  men 
are  being  educated  who  will  in  time  succeed  to  the  leader- 


224  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ship  in  church  and  state  .  .  .  something  entirely  differ- 
ent is  put  forward  in  the  name  of  science ;  doctrines  are 
preached  which  stand  in  sharpest  contradiction  with  those 
given  to  the  people.  .  .  .  This  is  excused  on  the  ground 
that  religion  is  for  the  people,  and  for  them  it  is  good  enough 
as  it  is  ;  science,  however,  occupies  another  field  and  seeks  a 
different  patronage — the  two  do  not  come  in  contact." 

The  church  also  is  far  from  being  satisfied  with  the  relig- 
ious education  in  the  secondary  schools,  and  some  influential 
churchmen  have  attempted  to  bring  about  a  re- 
^ orm  which  should  give  more  time  to  religion. 
This  is  strongly  opposed  by  school-men,  on  the 
ground  that  not  more  time,  but  better  men  and  better  methods, 
are  wanted.  The  prevailing  opinion  is  that  there  is  far  too 
much  formal  memorizing.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  know  the 
catechism,  most  of  the  Psalms,  many  hymns,  and  a  large  part 
of  the  Bible  ;  but  if  the  religious  life  of  the  child  is  to  be 
stunted  thereby,  it  were  better  to  let  some  things  pass.  It  is 
said  that  some  text-books  give  as  many  as  three  hundred  and 
fifty  disconnected  scriptural  texts  to  be  learned  by  heart.  It 
is  no  wonder  that  the  letter  kills  the  spirit.  The  school-men 
complain  also  that  their  scholars  know  the  history  of  the 
Jews  better  than  the  history  of  the  Germans.  The  remedy, 
they  say,  is  not  more  formal  study ;  for  pupils  might  spend 
all  their  time  on  religion,  memorize  the  entire  Bible,  and  yet 
come  out  irreligious.  Better  no  catechism  than  so  many  tears 
in  learning  it. 

Professor  Kirchner,  of  Berlin,  speaks  for  the  majority  of 

his  colleagues  when  he  says  :  "  If  the  religious  feeling  is  not 

revered,  awakened  and  fostered  [in  the  home], 

Bducaton         tlie   sch°o1    can   do   veiT   litfcle-      As  a  rule>    the 

yearning  toward  God  in  a  child's  soul  is  very 
slight.  A  surfeit  of  religious  doctrines,  maxims,  hymns, 
forms,  ceremonies,  prayers,  as  experience  proves,  often  pro- 
duces a  result  precisely  opposite  to  the  one  intended.  Not 
the  school,  but  the  church,  has  the  largest  share  in  fostering 
the  increase  of  piety.  Least  of  all  should  the  school  be 


INSTRUCTION  IN  RELIGION  225 

pressed  into  the  service  of  ?,  rigid  orthodoxy ;  it  should  not 
forget  that  the  educational  point  of  view  must  be  its  standard. 
Lessons  in  religion  ought  not  to  be  hours  dedicated  to  devo- 
tion, but  give  instruction  in  a  grave,  cheerful  manner.  The 
school  must  be  content  to  establish  in  its  pupils  genuine  relig- 
ious feeling  and  sound  morality.  The  means  of  doing  so  is 
on  the  one  hand  instruction,  and  on  the  other  the  teacher's 
example.  Hypocritical  sanctimoniousness,  external  atten- 
tion to  church  forms,  nay,  even  polemics  against  those  who 
hold  a  different  faith,  will  have  no  good  result.  In  the 
choice  and  treatment  of  subjects  the  standard  must  be  gen- 
uine religious  stimulation,  rather  than  dead  knowledge, 
scholastic  erudition  or  barren  forms."1 

The  ministry  has  now  come  around  to  this  idea.     The  new 
curricula  lay  special  stress  on  the  spirit  of  instruction.   "  The 
religious  instruction  is  to  be  so  imparted  that 
emphasis  shall  be  laid  upon  the  living  accepta-    Governmental    . 

*  *  Instructions. 

tion  and  the  inward  appropriation  of  the  facts 
of  salvation  and  the  Christian  duties,  and  especial  attention 
be  given  to  the  apologetic  and  ethical  side.  Along  with  con- 
siderable diminution  in  the  amount  taught,  especially  by  cut- 
ting out  the  history  of  the  church  and  dogma  leading  to  the 
taking  sides  in  religious  controversies,  the  instruction,  so  far 
as  it  is  based  on  history,  is  to  be  limited  to  the  occurrences 
of  enduring  significance  for  the  ecclesiastical  and  religious 
life." 

Still,  it  is  better  to  have  some  religious  instruction  to  com- 
plain of  than  none  at  all.  The  situation  is  not  as  bad  as  the 
doubters  think.  There  is  a  vast  deal  of  excel- 
lent work  being  done,  and  I  am  convinced  that 
students  who  are  seriously  entering  into  their 
school  work  in  other  lines  are  as  seriously  studying  the  facts 
and  principles  of  their  religion.  I  rarely  found  a  school-boy, 
whose  judgment  I  considered  of  value  in  other  matters,  who 
was  not  deeply  impressed  with  the  worth  of  his  religious  train  - 

1  Educational  Review,  I.,  pp.  479-80.     See  also  his  monograph :  Zvr 
Reform  des  Religionsunterrichts,  Berlin,  1876. 
16 


226  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ing.  There  is  much  doubt,  much  senseless  criticism,  abroad 
in  the  land,  but  its  sources  are  not  to  be  sought  in  the  schools. 
On  the  contrary,  the  religion  of  protestant  Germany,  as  it  is 
presented  in  the  schools,  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  forces 
making  for  unity  in  German  life. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : —  Schuren,  Gedanken  iiber  Religionsunterricht, 
Gutersloh,  1888 ;  Wiese,  Der  evangelische  Religionsunterricht,  Berlin, 
1891 ;  Meyer,  Der  erangelische  Religionsunterricht  an  die  hoheren  Schulen, 
Hanover,  1876 ;  Gottschiek,  Der  evangel.  Rel.  Unt.  in  den  oberen  Klassen 
hoh.  Schulen,  Halle,  1884;  Schrader,  Erziehungs  und  Unterrichtslehre  fiir 
Gymnasien  und  Realschulen,  Berlin,  1893;  Schiller,  Handbuch  der  prak- 
tischen  Padagogik  fur  hohere  Lehranstalten,  Leipsic,  1890;  Encyclopedias 
of  Schmid  and  Rein ;  Wychgram,  ffandbvch  des  hoheren  Madchenschul- 
wesens,  Leipsic,  1897;  Frick,  Pddagogische  und  didaktische  Abhandlungcn* 
Halle,  1893. 


CHAPTER  XII 

INSTRUCTION  IN  GERMAN 

THE  question  of  how  to  teach  the  mother-tongue,  and  of 
what  to  teach,  and  for  what  ends,  is  not  new  to  German  edu- 
cators. For  a  generation  it  has  arisen  in  one 

,  Its  Purpose. 

form  or  another  to  vex  the  devotees  of  the  old 
system,  and  with  each  reappearance  it  has  won  increased 
favour  from  the  public.  It  has  been  discussed  scientifically 
on  its  own  merits  ;  it  has  been  an  important  factor  in  the 
wider  problem  of  the  national  policy  in  education  ;  it  has 
been  invoked  as  the  bulwark  of  the  fatherland  against  the 
rising  tides  of  social  democracy.  That  there  should  be  una- 
nimity of  opinion  is  scarcely  to  be  expected.  My  purpose  in 
this  chapter  is  to  extract  from  the  mass  of  material  at  hand 
what  seems  to  me  of  value  to  English  readers,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  represent  as  faithfully  as  I  can  the  essentials  of 
theory  and  practice  from  the  German  point  of  view. 

Instruction  in  the  mother-tongue,  it  is  generally  conceded, 
should  occupy  a  central  place  in  the  curriculum  ;  it  should 
be  treated  directly  as  an  independent  subject,- 
and  indirectly  in  connection  with  all  other  sub- 
jects  of  the  course ;  it  should  introduce  the 
pupil  to  the  national  history  and  literature  ;  and  its  especial 
aim  should  be  to  beget  a  readiness  in  the  correct  use  of  the 
oral  and  written  language.  While  there  are  few  dissenters 
from  the  first  proposition,  a  glance  at  the  program  of  a 
Prussian  Gymnasium  shows  sixty-two  week-hours  assigned 
to  Latin  and  twenty-six  to  German.  This  would  be  contra- 
dictory were  it  not  possible  to  teach  the  mother-tongue  in- 

227 


228  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

directly.  The  weight  of  departmental  rulings  favours  this 
plan.  If  the  Gynmasien  need  for  Latin  more  than  twice  the 
time  that  is  given  to  German,  they  must  make  the  use  of 
good  German  an  essential  part  of  the  training  in  Latin.  A 
sensible  pedagogics  bases  this  demand  on  higher  motives : 
All  instruction  may  not  be  restricted  lo  the  subject  in  hand  ; 
it  should  also  contribute  to  the  general  culture.  As  new 
ideas  are  acquired  words  must  be  found  to  match  them.  If 
the  pupil  is  allowed  to  speak  in  his  vernacular,  if  his  use  of 
language  is  not  extended  beyond  the  range  of  his  provincial 
dialect,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  new  ideas  will  lose  half  their 
value  because  inadequately  expressed.  With  clearness  and 
correctness  of  expression  comes  a  keener  insight  into  the 
mental  content.  And  when  every  recitation  is  made  indi- 
rectly an  exercise  in  the  right  use  of  the  mother-tongue  ; 
when  the  pupil  is  taught  to  appreciate  the  value  of  concise, 
correct  and  suitable  language  as  the  exponent  of  his  ideas  ; 
when  every  sentence  written  for  a  teacher's  criticism  is  tested 
not  only  for  content  but  for  form  ;  and,  above  all,  when  the 
teacher  is  always  careful  not  to  offend  in  written  or  spoken 
word — when  all  this  is  carried  out  faithfully  and  cheerfully, 
then  is  the  difficult  part  of  the  training  already  accomplished. 
And,  further,  if  the  mother-tongue  is  not  taught  indirectly 
in  connection  with  every  other  subject,  the  hours  specially 
devoted  to  it — be  they  never  so  many — will  be  disappointing. 
It  is  not  possible,  if  success  would  be  attained,  to  have  our 
speech  on  parade  certain  hours  of  the  week  and  off  duty  the 
rest  of  the  time. 

The  reading  of  good  literature  is  its  own  reward;  but  when, 
as  in  Germany,  the  literature  breathes  the  national  life  and 

spirit,  the  reader  catches  an  added  charm.     If 
Literature"1     ne  ^e  a  school-boy,  he  lingers  long  over  the 

tales  of  wonderful  adventure  and  stirring  pa- 
triotism so  characteristic  of  the  fatherland,  and  thereby  be- 
comes— a  German.  Not  only  does  he  imbibe  new  feelings, 
new  ideas,  but  unconsciously  his  tongue  acquires  something 
of  the  richness  of  the  language  in  which  he  reads — a  language 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GERMAN  229 

new,  but  yet  his  own.  And  the  study  of  foreign  classics,  an- 
cient and  modern,  gives  him  a  deeper  insight  into  the  nature 
of  the  mother-tongue ;  the  points  of  comparison  not  only 
fix  the  limits  of  his  speech,  but  suggest  greater  freedom  with- 
in its  bounds.  With  right,  then,  is  the  study  of  literature 
emphasized  in  German  schools. 

Historically,  German  is  one  of  the  most  modern  subjects  in 
the  German  schools.  From  the  time  of  Comenius,  and  even 
earlier,  there  have  been  occasional  advocates  of 
German  instruction  ;  but  in  schools  given  over 
primarily  to  Latin  there  was  small  place  for 
the  mother-tongue.  Moreover,  it  was  not  till  late  in  the 
eighteenth  century  that  there  was  such  a  thing  as  German 
literature,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term  ;  and  it  was  well- 
nigh  a  century  later  before  it  gained  admission  into  the 
school  curricula.  The  first  half  of  the  present  century  was  so 
overshadowed  by  formalism  in  all  matters  educational  that 
what  little  attention  was  given  to  German  was  mainly  the 
study  of  grammar  and  rhetoric.  It  is  only  in  the  last  genera- 
tion, almost  in  the  last  decade,  that  instruction  in  German 
has  become  respectable ;  and  since  1892  it  has  advanced  to 
first  place  in  the  estimation  of  the  government  It  is  the 
beginning  of  a  new  era,  in  which  the  chief  aim  is  to  reveal  to 
youth  the  wealth  of  their  national  inheritance  and,  through 
its  literature,  to  inspire  them  with  a  deeper  patriotism  and  a 
more  abiding  faithfulness  to  the  German  spirit.  In  the  Ber- 
lin Conference  of  December,  1890,  the  Emperor  placed  him- 
self frankly  on  the  side  of  the  nationalists.  His  declaration 
that  the  schools  were  making  of  their  pupils  young  Greeks, 
young  Romans,  anything  but  young  Germans,  put  the  prob- 
lem squarely  before  the  people  from  a  statesman's  point  of 
view.  The  result  has  been  a  thorough  revision  of  the  curric- 
ulum for  Prussian  schools,  and  a  similar  change  in  the  school 
program  of  most  of  the  smaller  German  states. 

The  new  Prussian  program  went  into  effect  at  Easter, 
1892.  It  has  been  severely  criticised  in  many  particulars,  but 
I  have  not  learned  that  the  course  in  German  has  met  with 


230  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

serious  opposition.     To  be  sure,  there  are  those  who  say  that, 

granting  the  wisdom  of  the  general  aim,  the  means  prescribed 

are  not  calculated  to  attain  those  ends  ;  but  a 

Recent  Reforms.  ,  ,  .          .,        , 

teacher  who  accepts  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples will  find,  I  think,  small  excuse  to  complain  of  official 
strictures.  First,  the  time  for  German  is  increased — in  the 
Gymnasium  from  21  to  26  week-hours,  in  the  Oberrealschule 
from  30  to  34,  and  in  the  Realschule  from  21  to  28  for  nine 
and  six  years'  courses  respectively.  No  distinction  in  aim 
or  methods  is  made  between  the  classical  and  the  non- 
classical  higher  schools.  The  new  program  differs  from 
the  old  one  (1)  in  the  increased  attention  to  the  national 
literature,  (2)  in  the  demand  for  more  practice  in  composition, 
and  (3)  in  a  decided  restriction  of  the  time  formerly  given  to 
the  study  of  grammar. 

For  the  lower  classes,  in  which  the  boys  range  in  age  from 

nine  to  twelve  years,  the  new  course  is  as  fol- 

Course  of  Study.    ,  J 

lows  : 

SEXTA. 

Gymnasium  and  Realgymnasium,  4  hours  weekly ;  Ober- 
realschule, 5   hours.     (1)   Grammar :    Parts  of  speech;   the 
simple  sentence  :  strong  and  weak  declensions. 

Lower  Grades.      ,  ..   ',-,  .         .  ...     °    ,  -,.    ,     ,. 

(2)  Exercise  m  writing  from  dictation  once  a 
week.  (3)  Readings  :  fables,  legends,  stories  from  the  na- 
tional folk-lore  and  history.  (4)  Oral  reproduction  of  stories 
told  in  class.  (5)  Recitation  of  poems  committed  to  memory. 

QUINTA. 

Gymnasium  and  Realgymnasium,  3  hours  ;  Oberrealsclmle, 
4  hours.  (1)  Grammar  :  The  simple  and  compound  sentence; 
elements  of  the  complex  sentence.  (2)  Exercise  in  writing 
from  dictation  ;  punctuation.  (3)  Readings  from  the  ancient 
legends  and  history.  (4)  Oral  reproduction ;  first  attempts  at 
composition.  (5)  Recitation  of  poems,  etc.,  as  in  VI. 

QUARTA. 

Gymnasium  and  Realgymnasium,  3  hours  ;  Oberrealschule, 
4  hours.  (1)  Grammar  :  The  complex  sentence  ;  word-build- 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GERMAN  231 

ing.  (2)  Writing  from  dictation,  to  alternate  with  exercises 
written  on  what  is  heard  in  class ;  composition  every  four 
weeks.  (3)  Headings  from  prose  and  poetry.  (4)  Oral  repro- 
duction of  what  is  read  in  class.  (5)  Memorizing  and  recita- 
tion of  poems. 

An  outline  of  the  entire  grammar  course  may  be  found  in 
Hopf  and  Paulsiek's  reading-books  for  the  lower  classes.  In 
this  bare  sketch  of  ten  pages  are  given  typical 
examples  of  the  parts  of  speech  and  their  uses, 
the  formation  and  development  of  the  sentence  and  rules  for 
punctuation.  The  declensions  of  nouns,  pronouns  and  ad- 
jectives are  illustrated  by  appropriate  sets  of  endings.  Six 
classes  of  strong  verbs  are  distinguished  according  to  change 
in  root-vowel,  and  lists  of  each  class  are  given  ;  the  formation 
of  the  principal  parts  of  weak  verbs  is  noted  ;  a  list  of  irregu- 
lar verbs  is  added,  but  receives  no  comment.  Prepositions  are 
grouped  according  to  the  cases  which  follow  them.  In  the 
treatment  of  the  sentence  few  definitions  are  formulated ;  the 
peculiar  uses  of  compound  and  complex  sentences  are  classi- 
fied according  to  the  usual  method  of  Latin  grammars,  and 
the  Latin  terminology  is  used  throughout. 

The  above  outline,  or  a  similar  one,  I  have  found  in  use  in 
several  schools — but  for  teachers'  use  only.  The  education 
department  positively  prohibits  the  teaching  of 

.,  .,  ,,  How  Taught. 

the  German  grammar  as  if  it  were  the  grammar 
of  a  foreign  tongue.  So  far  as  it  is  necessary  it  must  be 
taught  indirectly  and  inductively,  but  it  should  lead  up  to  a 
clear  understanding  of  grammatical  theory.  To  illustrate,  I 
once  visited  a  recitation  in  Sexta  in  which  attention  was 
turned  indirectly  to  the  parts  of  speech.  From  occasional 
questions  of  the  teacher  I  could  see  that  certain  parts  were 
already  known  to  the  class.  The  adverb,  however,  was 
new,  but  from  the  material  of  the  lesson  words  were  found 
which  answered  to  the  questions,  how  ?  when  9  where  ?  These 
were  written  on  the  board  and  names  given  to  the  groups. 
The  use  of  the  adverb  and  its  forms  of  comparison  were  easily 
deduced.  In  a  subsequent  lesson  I  saw  the  preposition  studied 


232  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

in  the  same  way.  On  inquiry  I  found  that  the  class  was  not 
so  backward  as  the  apparent  ignorance  of  grammatical  terms 
seemed  to  indicate.  The  teacher,  who  also  had  Latin  in 
Sexta,  preferred  to  make  the  one  study  supplement  the  other. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  course  declension  and  conjugation 
in  Latin  furnish  ample  drill  in  German  forms,  and  the  treat- 
ment of  the  sentence  makes  comparison  of  idioms  fruitful. 
To  systematize  in  the  German  recitations  what  is  learned  with 
the  Latin  costs  small  labour,  and  is  the  more  likely  to  be  of 
interest  to  the  pupils  because  of  the  association.  This  teacher 
followed  the  new  program  to  the  letter,  and  were  the  results 
universally  so  good  as  in  his  class  there  could  be  no  question 
of  the  wisdom  of  the  measure. 

The  parts  of  grammar  assigned  to  Quinta  and  Quarta  are 
very  difficult.  Young  boys,  even  natives,  are  not  likely  to 
find  the  intricacies  of  the  German  complex 
sentence  easy.  They  do  not  use  subordinate 
clauses  in  simple  conversation  ;  and  while  they 
may  understand,  it  is  quite  another  thing  to  speak  the  lan- 
guage idiomatically.  This  must  be  learned  for  the  most  part 
in  school.  What  with  declension  for  everything  declinable, 
genders  that  know  no  law  and  a  phraseology  doubly  com- 
pounded, the  masters  of  the  lower  grades  see  sorry  times. 
English  teachers  may  find  comfort  in  knowing  that  fate  has 
not  exhausted  all  its  woes  in  imposing  on  them  a  wretched 
orthography.  Foreigners  underestimate,  I  am  sure,  the 
hindrances  met  with  by  Germans  in  fixing  the  elements  of 
their  language.  The  training  in  Latin  clears  up  many  diffi- 
culties for  gymnasial  scholars,  and  for  this  advantage  the 
Realschulen  have  a  partial  recompense  in  the  larger  number 
of  hours  assigned  to  German.  The  weekly  exercise  in  writ- 
ing from  dictation  is  always  connected  with  a  recitation  in 
the  literature,  and  contributes  to  its  review.  In  Sexta  five 
or  six  simple  sentences — usually  selected  to  illustrate  some 
grammatical  principle  as  well — are  deemed  sufficient.  The 
pupils'  books  remain  with  the  teacher,  who  returns  them 
with  errors  indicated  in  time  for  the  next  exercise.  The 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GERMAN  233 

more  common  faults  of  writing  and  spelling  are  then  dis- 
cussed in  class.  In  Quinta  and  Quarto,  the  same  methods 
prevail.  The  use  of  the  extended  sentence  gives  rise  to  dif- 
ficulties of  punctuation  to  which  special  attention  must  be 
given. 

The  real  basis  of  all  the  work  is  the  literature.  The  Prus- 
sian program  requires  that  the  reading  be  in  line  with  the 
history  for  the  corresponding  grades;  in  the 
schools  of  central  Germany  I  have  noticed  a 
disposition  to  join  it  with  the  instruction  in  re- 
ligion as  well.  Hopf  and  Paulsiek's  reader  for  Sexta  (I  quote 
this  series  because  it  is  one  of  the  most  popular  in  use  in 
German  schools)  has  seventy-two  pages  of  legends,  fables  and 
tales  from  the  national  folk-lore,  of  which  fully  one-half  is 
from  the  Grimm  collection  ;  thirty  pages  contain  historical 
sketches  from  the  lives  of  the  German  emperors  from  Charle- 
magne to  Frederick  III.;  and  in  the  remaining  forty-six 
pages  of  prose  is  to  be  found  a  variety  of  selections  relating 
to  animal  life,  nature,  etc.  Then  follows  some  sixty  pages 
—eighty  selections — of  poetry  in  which  the  historical  ele- 
ment predominates.  Many  of  the  finest  lyrics  of  the  lan- 
guage are  in  the  list.  In  fact,  the  book  within  its  limits  con- 
tains the  best  the  language  affords.  The  editors  assume  that 
the  best  is  none  too  good  for  school  use,  and  that  boys  of  nine 
and  ten  years  can  appreciate  it.  Such  a  book  is  not  read 
from  cover  to  cover ;  for  lack  of  time  a  large  part  must  be 
excluded.  Freedom  of  choice,  therefore,  is  the  teacher's 
privilege  in  the  interest  of  his  class. 

The  readings  for  Quinta  stand  in  close  relation  to  the  course 
in  history  for  the  same  class  :  "  Stories  from  the  legendary 
history  of  the  Greek  and  Romans. "  Tales  from  Germanic 
history  of  a  corresponding  era  naturally  find  an  important 
place.  The  same  line  is  followed  in  Quarta,  save  that  the 
legendary  makes  way  for  the  historical. 

The  striking  peculiarity  of  the  instruction  in  the  lower 
grades  is  the  great  emphasis  put  upon  oral  work.  Reading- 
books  are  little  used  in  Sexta;  the  teacher  tells  the  story,  after 


234  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

which  the  main  points  as  they  occur  to  the  pupils  are  written 

on  the  board.     This  is  a  chance  for  skilful  questioning,  and 

it  tests  directly  the  pupils'  attentiveness.     The 

Oral  Work. 

story  is  then  reproduced  orally  by  several  pupils 
in  turn  ;  correctness  of  expression  and  completeness  of  detail 
are  especially  considered.  The  reading-books,  if  used  at 
all,  are  brought  out  after  the  oral  exercise,  that  the  selection 
may  be  read  aloud.  Such  comparison  as  naturally  arises  be- 
tween the  forms  of  expression  used  by  the  pupils  and  those 
of  the  author  makes  the  work  interesting  and  profitable. 
Often,  however,  the  entire  exercise  is  oral.  I  recall  having 
once  heard  stories  of  the  adventures  of  Ulysses  related  in 
order  during  an  entire  hour,  the  only  advance  being  the  ac- 
count of  the  shipwreck  and  the  landing  on  Calypso's  isle.  No 
text-book  had  been  used  during  the  semester  ;  the  only  record 
was  the  outlines  put  on  the  board  from  day  to  day,  which  the 
boys  copied  into  note-books.  Frequent  reviews  kept  the  con- 
nection fresh  in  mind.  Through  Quinta  the  reader  becomes 
gradually  more  used,  till  in  Quarto,  the  pupils  read  the  ad- 
vance lessons  at  sight.  A  thorough  understanding  of  the 
piece  must  result  from  the  written  analysis  and  the  oral  re- 
production which  follows. 

No  writing,  except  from  dictation,  is  expected  in  Sexta. 
During  the  first  semester  in  Quinta  the  reproduction  of  the 
lesson  is  frequently  in  writing  ;  in  the  second 
half-year  the  pupil  occasionally  writes  his  ac- 
count at  home.  In  Quarta  he  is  asked  for  the  first  time  to 
use  his  own  words  in  the  oral  and  written  class  exercise. 
Heretofore  the  aim  has  been  to  reproduce  the  exact  form  of 
his  model.  Theoretically,  the  memory  is  foremost  up  to  the 
twelfth  year.  In  a  lower  school  I  have  heard  an  hour  wasted 
— as  it  then  seemed  to  me — in  the  endeavour  to  have  repro- 
duced exactly  a  dozen  sentences  related  by  the  teacher  de- 
scriptive of  the  Luther-room  in  the  Wartburg.  A  picture  of 
the  room  hung  before  the  class,  but  notwithstanding  the 
frantic  efforts  of  the  teacher  not  more  than  two  or  three  of 
his  pupils  succeeded  in  the  task.  The  boys  took  no  interest 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GERMAN  235 

ill  the  exercise,  and  failure  was  inevitable.  The  method, 
however,  may  be  most  successful,  as  I  have  since  observed, 
in  the  hands  of  a  good  teacher ;  but  I  also  note  two  conditions 
essential  to  success  :  (1)  an  interesting  story  ;  (2)  reasonable 
freedom  to  the  pupil  in  relating  it. 

The  Germans  recognize  that  the  surest  way  of  creating  in 
a  boy  a  love  for  good  literature  is  to  let  him  read  it  for  him- 
self. Desultory  reading  is  time  wasted  ;  only 

•  ' >     e  J       Memorizing. 

in  so  far  as  the  reader  makes  what  is  read  a 
part  of  himself  is  it  of  value  to  him.     The  memorizing  of 
choice  selections,  therefore,  is  an  important  feature  of  the 
entire  course.     From  three  hundred  to  five  hundred  lines 
are  usually  required  in  each  of  the  lower  classes.     It  is  un- 
necessary to  enumerate  the  selections ;  suffice  it  to  say  that 
the  gems  of  the  language  are  found  therein. 
The  program  for  the  middle  classes  is  as  follows  : 

UNTERTERTIA. 

Gymnasium,  2  hours  ;  Realgymnasium  and  Oberredlschule, 
3  hours.     (1)  Grammar  :  Comprehensive  review  of  the  most 
important  rules  peculiar  to  the  German.     (2) 
Composition  to  be  written  out  of  school  once  a   ^^^  "? 

/.i\  TI      j-  £  j  Middle  Grades. 

month.     (,-3)  Readings  from  prose  and  poetry. 
(4)  Study  of  poetic  forms,  so  far  as  necessary,  in  explanation 
of  what  is  read.     (5)  Memorizing  and  recitation  of  poems  as 
in  lower  grades. 

OBERTERTIA. 

Gymnasium,  2  hours ;  Realgymnasium  and  Oberrealschule, 
3  hours.  (1)  Composition  as  in  Illi,  to  which  is  added  re- 
ports on  personal  experiences  in  letter  form.  (2)  Readings  : 
lyric  and  dramatic  poetry  ;  some  prose.  (3)  Rhetoric  and 
prosody  treated  inductively.  (4)  Recitation  of  memorized 
poems  and  of  selections  from  the  dramas. 

UNTERSECUNDA. 

Gymnasium,  Realgymnasium  and  Oberrealsclmle,  3  hours. 

(1)  Instruction  in  essay  writing  through  practice  in  selecting 
the  material  and  arranging  it  in  class ;  critical  essay  monthly. 

(2)  Readings :    Jungfrau  von    Orleans  (in   schools   without 


236  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

Greek,  Wilhelm  Tell),  Minna  von  Barrihelm,  Hermann  und 
Dorothea.  (3)  Memorizing  of  selections  from  the  dramas ; 
first  attempts  in  recitation  of  pupils'  own  productions. 

The  study  of  grammar  is  completed  with  the  review  pre- 
scribed for   Untertertia.     Custom  varies  widely,  but  my  ob- 
servation is  that  most  teachers  accomplish  this 

Grammar.  .  .  .  . 

review  indirectly  in  connection  with  the  read- 
ing. The  study  of  syntax,  together  with  continued  practice 
in  word-building  (begun  in  Quarto)  and  in  the  use  of  syno- 
nyms, makes  a  good  introduction  to  the  later  study  of  the 
science  of  the  language. 

The  formal  composition,  which  now  appears  in  the  pro- 
gram for  the  first  time,  is  mainly  descriptive ;  but  trans- 
lations from  Latin  or  French  are  often  accepted 

Composition.  .  0  ... 

as  equivalent,  ouch  written  work  as  obtains  in 
the  lower  classes  aims  at  exact  imitation  of  what  is  heard  or 
read  ;  in  Untertertia  the  pupils  are  expected  to  abstract  from 
a  more  extended  reading  the  important  facts  and  relate  them 
within  smaller  compass  in  their  own  words.  The  exercise 
is  similar  to  what  in  American  schools  is  sometimes  called 
"  paraphrasing."  It  has  especial  value  in  the  study  of  poe- 
try, both  as  an  exercise  in  composition  and  in  the  elucidation 
of  the  text.  The  almost  daily  practice  in  oral  and  written 
reproduction  of  what  is  read  in  class  prepares  the  way  nat- 
urally for  the  more  formal  monthly  composition.  Besides 
these  formal  exercises  in  composition,  each  instructor  assigns 
once  a  quarter-year  a  special  task  in  his  own  subject  to  be 
written  up  in  class.  This  work  serves  the  dual  purpose  of  an 
examination  in  subject-matter  and  in  writing  German. 

It  is  quite  impossible  to  give  here  a  comprehensive  review 
of  the  development  of  the  German  methods  of  teaching  com- 
position.    The  subject  is  so  interwoven  with  the 
development  of  the  entire  curriculum,  and  has 
passed  through  so  many  changes  incident  to  the  progressive 
educational  ideas  of  the  country,  that  it  may  not  be  explained 
apart  from  its  wider  environment.     Composition  in  some  form 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GERMAN  237 

has  always  held  a  prominent  place  in  linguistic  instruction  ; 
it  is  not  so  long  ago  that  the  writing  of  Greek  and  Latin  was 
the  highest  test  of  scholarship  in  Germany  ;  and,  in  fact,  it  is 
only  since  the  promulgation  of  the  new  Prussian  curriculum 
that  the  Latin  and  Greek  essays  have  retired  to  a  subordinate 
place.  In  proportion  as  less  stress  has  been  put  upon  compo- 
sition in  foreign  tongues  has  the  German  essay  advanced  to 
a  front  rank.  But  a  lingering  prejudice  among  the  older 
masters  does  not  hasten  the  modern  reforms.  If  anything 
were  ever  damned  by  faint  praise,  it  is  the  German  essay  in 
the  hands  of  some  of  these  erudite  classicists.  The  younger 
teachers  are  not  so  ;  their  minds  are  not  fixed  by  long  years 
in  a  single  class-room,  and  the  spirit  of  the  new  program 
finds  its  fullest  and  heartiest  expression  in  their  work. 

The  "  practical  teaching  of  essay  writing  "  prescribed  for 
Untersecunda  is  too  often,  I  fear,  a  mockery.  The  theories 
of  ancient  rhetoricians,  as  cut-and-dried  by  tra- 
dition in  Germany,  are  not  conducive  to  the 
highest  results,  especially  with  men  who  write 
almost  any  language  better  than  their  own.  But  I  have  seen 
most  excellent  results  in  the  upper  classes,  and  there  is  no 
reason  why  it  should  not  be  the  rule.  The  preparation  af- 
forded in  the  lower  grades  is  certainly  of  a  high  order,  and 
if  properly  continued  should  produce  telling  effects.  The 
main  difficulty  is  that  inasmuch  as  only  eight  or  nine  essays 
are  prescribed  for  the  year,  the  practice  in  writing  will  be  left 
to  these  supreme  occasions.  Those  who  are  really  in  sympa- 
thy with  the  new  reform  insist  on  a  little  writing  every  day, 
and  so  arrange  this  practice  work  that  when  the  time  comes 
for  the  formal  essay  the  student  already  has  his  ideas  well 
fixed,  and  knows  almost  to  a  certainty  what  form  the  expres- 
sion should  take.  In  other  words,  the  theory  is  that  it  is  in- 
finitely better  to  avoid  errors  by  previous  careful  training  than 
to  correct  them  after  they  are  made.  To  this  end  the  "prac- 
tical instruction  "  above  mentioned  is  no  more  nor  less  than 
almost  daily  drill  in  arranging  logically  a  train  of  ideas  with 
which  the  students  are  already  familiar.  It  is  in  this  con- 


238  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

nection  that  translations  from  the  foreign  languages  may  be 
made  most  valuable  ;  here  the  ideas  are  given,  and  in  logical 
order,  according  to  the  spirit  of  the  original.  The  test  is  to 
express  the  same  ideas  and  arrange  them  according  to  the 
recognised  laws  of  the  mother-tongue. 

The  history  course  for    Untertertia  traces  the  political 

changes  in  western  Europe  from  the  death  of  Augustus  to 

the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  :  so  far  as  possible, 

Literature.  .  ... 

the  readings  for  the  year  are  intended  to  illus- 
trate this  period.  The  Scandinavian  tales  and  the  old  Ger- 
manic legends  of  the  Nibelimgenlied  are  prominent ;  epic 
poetry  and  ballads  receive  particular  stress.  From  Tertia  on, 
dramatic  poetry  becomes  foremost  in  the  course.  So,  too,  the 
reading  of  entire  works  in  place  of  selections  becomes  more 
and  more  characteristic  of  the  higher  classes.  Schiller's 
Glocke  and  Wilhelm  Tell  are  commonly  read  in  Obertertia ; 
but  in  schools  without  Greek,  translations  from  Homer  may 
take  the  place  of  Tell  The  list  of  poems — according  to 
Hopf  and  Paulsiek — to  be  committed  to  memory  includes 
Die  Kraniche  des  Ibykus,  Der  Ring  des  Polykrates,  Der 
Handschuli  and  Die  Glocke,  by  Schiller,  Der  Erlkonig,  by 
Goethe,  and  seven  other  selections — in  all,  about  1,200  lines 
during  the  year.  These  selections  are  not,  of  course,  officially 
required,  and  it  will  seldom  happen  that  this  precise  list  will 
be  memorized.  Custom  decrees,  however,  that  at  least  six  or 
eight  such  poems  shall  be  made  the  pupils'  own. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  young  men  who  complete 
Untersecunda  in  a  higher  school  are  privileged  to  serve  only 
one  year  in  the  army.  In  1889-1890,  8,051  Prussian  students 
left  school  after  winning  the  coveted  military  boon  ;  only 
4,105  finished  the  entire  nine  years'  course.  For  German 
schools,  therefore,  it  is  highly  important  that  something  like 
completeness  should  be  attained  in  the  course,  exclusive  of  the 
last  three  years.  That  this  is  attempted  is  evident  in  the 
abrupt  change  in  the  character  of  the  work  after  Secunda  is 
passed.  But  under  the  most  favourable  interpretation  it  must 
be  said  that  the  Prussian  schools  are  designed  for  the  four 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GERMAN  239 

thousand  who  complete  the  course,  instead  of  the  eight  thou- 
sand who  find  it  convenient  or  necessary  to  drop  out  three 
years  before  the  end. 

The  arrangement  of  the  course  in  the  upper  classes  is  as 
follows : 

OBERSECUNDA. 

Gymnasium  and  Realgymnasium,  3  hours  ;  Oberrealschule, 
4  hours.  (1)  Composition  at  home  and  in  class  ;  shorter  es- 
says on  topics  drawn  from  the  general  instruc- 
tion ;  about  eight  essays  in  the  school  year. 
(2)  Introduction  to  the  Nibelungenlied  in  the 
original  text ;  the  courtly  epic  and  lyric.  (3)  General  review 
of  styles  of  poetry.  (4)  Reading  of  dramas  :  Wallenstein, 
Egmont,  Goetz.  (5)  Occasional  committing  to  memory  of 
selections  from  the  reading ;  original  discourses  by  the  stu- 
dents upon  the  contents  of  the  more  significant  poems  of  the 
middle-high  German  and  of  modern  dramas. 

UNTERPRIMA. 

Gymnasium  and  Realgymnasium,  3  hours  ;  Oberrealschule, 
4  hours.  (1)  Composition  as  in  Ha.  (2)  History  of  the 
literature  of  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, treated  biographically.  (3)  Readings  :  Selections  from 
Lessing's  Laokoon,  etc.  ;  a  few  odes  of  Klopstock ;  lyrics  of 
Schiller  and  Goethe  ;  dramas — Iphigenie,  Braut  von  Messina 
(in  schools  without  Greek,  Sophocles'  dramas  in  translation) ; 
selections  from  the  later  poets.  (4)  Discussions  by  the  students 
on  the  lives  and  works  of  the  poets. 

OBERPRI3IA. 

Gymnasium  and  Realgymnasium,  3  hours  ;  Oberrealschule, 
4  hours.  (1)  Composition  as  in  Ila  and  Ib.  (2)  History 
of  the  literature  from  Goethe  to  the  present  time  in  biograph- 
ical form.  (3)  Readings  from  the  Hamburgische  Drama- 
turgic ;  dramas,  especially  Shakespeare's,  in  translation  (in 
Gymnasien).  (4)  Original  discourses  by  the  students  on  the 
lives  and  works  of  the  poets. 

The  dangers  incident  to  the  composition  work  in  the 
middle  grades  are  likely  to  increase  in  the  higher  classes,  but 
it  is  not  my  purpose  to  write  on  the  shortcomings  of  individ- 


24:0  GERMAN  niQHER  SCHOOLS 

nal  teachers.  I  accept  without  question  the  Prussian  pro- 
gram as  it  stands.  But  there  is  a  real  danger,  as  confessed  to 
me  more  than  once,  even  for  the  ablest  teach- 
ers, that  they  will  make  the  composition  too 
much  an  exercise  in  literary  criticism.  The  more  enthusi- 
astic the  instructor  is,  the  more  familiar  he  is  with  the  deeper 
significance  of  the  literature,  the  more  likely  is  he  to  overes- 
timate the  mental  calibre  of  his  class. 

A  teacher  of  many  years'  experience  in  the  schools  of 
Cassel  recently  placed  in  my  hands  some  half-dozen  volumes 
devoted  to  critical  exposition  of  the  readings,  with  full  out- 
lines of  essays  for  the  upper  grades  of  higher  schools.  I  have 
met  with  many  such  books  for  teachers'  use,  which  give 
hundreds,  if  not  thousands,  of  composition  themes,  with  ap- 
propriate outlines.  The  mass  of  material  is  really  bewilder- 
ing, and,  were  not  the  national  passion  for  book-making 
generally  understood,  one  might  infer  that  the  average  Ger- 
man teacher  has  no  ideas  of  his  own.  But  such  helps  may 
be  used  advantageously  by  earnest  teachers,  and  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  one  day  in  America  there  will  be  a  choice  of  as 
rich  material. 

As  an  indication  of  the  trend  in  essay  writing  I  give 
herewith  two  lists  of  themes  actually  used  in 

Essay  Themes.      ^.    . 

Pnma : 

Unterprima,  Jena  Gymnasium,  1893-1894  : 
(1)  What  were  Hagen's  motives  in  murdering  Siegfried  ? 
(2)  Brunhilde  as  portrayed  by  Geibel  and  in  the  Nibelungen 
legends:  a  comparison.    (3)  Explain  and  justify  Schiller's 
distich  : 

"Euch,  Ihr  Gutter,  gehoret  der  Kaufmaon  : 

Giiter  zu  suchen, 
Geht  er,  doch  an  sein  Schiff  kniipfet  das  Gute  sich  an  "  (class  essay). 

(4)  Would  not  Shakespeare's  Julius    Ccesar  have  been   bet- 
ter entitled  Brutus  9     (5)  The  virtues  and  vices  of  the  Ger- 
mans, according  to  Tacitus'  Germania.     (6)  What  share  had 
the  Prince  in  Lessing's  Emilia  Galotti  in  Marinelli's  deed  ? 
Obernrima,  Wilhelms-Gvnmasium,  Cassel,  1892-1893  : 
(1)  In  how  far  is  the  second  Punic  war  a  decisive  turning- 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GERMAN  241 

point  in  Roman  history  ?  (2)  The  development  of  the  dra- 
matic action  in  the  third  act  of  Shakespeare's  Coriolanus. 
(3)  (a)  Causes  and  significance  of  the  revolt  of  the  Nether- 
lands ;  (b)  The  consequences  of  the  discovery  of  America 
(class  essay).  (4)  Epaminondas  and  Gustavus  Adolphus  :  a 
comparison.  (5)  The  historical  importance  of  the  Great 
Elector  of  Brandenburg.  (6)  The  historical  significance  of 
Greece,  Rome  and  Palestine,  with  particular  relation  to  Ger- 
many. (Eleven  other  essays  were  written  during  the  year,  of 
which  nine  were  composed  in  class.) 

The  reading  of  entire  works  finds  its  fullest  scope  in  the 
upper  classes.  In  proportion  as  the  mechanical  use  of  the 
language  becomes  familiar  is  the  reader  enabled 

Literature. 

to  consider  more  the  content  of  what  he  reads. 
At  first  the  form  is  all-important,  and  in  a  measure  the  form 
conditions  the  idea  ;  but  with  time  the  highest  art  of  expres- 
sion becomes  subservient  to  the  intellectual  content.  In  the 
writings  of  Schiller  and  Lessing,  Goethe  and  Shakespeare, 
the  German  school-boy  has  a  wealth  of  material  unsurpassed 
in  variety  of  treatment  and  in  richness  of  meaning.  And 
when  we  consider  his  readings  from  the  ancient  and  modern 
classics,  his  studies  in  the  history  of  Greece  and  Rome  and  of 
the  fatherland",  it  will  be  noted  with  what  a  liberal  training 
he  approaches  the  study  of  master-pieces  of  his  own  literature. 
But  is  Shakespeare  German?  The  answer  must  be  that  if 
sympathetic  renderings  on  every  stage,  if  a  general  and  appre- 
ciative reading  in  the  schools  and  in  the  home, 
can  naturalize  a  man's  work,  then  is  Shake- 
speare German.  A  German  teacher  of  English  recently  told 
me  of  his  experiences  of  a  vacation  in  England.  He  wanted 
especially  to  hear  Shakespeare  played  in  English  by  English 
actors.  And  his  experience?  Not  once  during  the  summer 
did  he  have  the  chance.  Light  comedy  he  could  hear  every 
night,  and  silly  operas.  This  is  not  true  even  of  small  towns 
in  Germany.  And  I  know  that  during  the  few  months  I  spent 
in  Jena  more  of  Shakespeare's  plays  were  given  in  that  quiet 
Thuringian  town  of  13,000  inhabitants  than  have  been  played 
in  most  American  towns  of  the  same  size  in  as  many  years. 

16 


242  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

In  Germany  the  theatre  supplements  the  school ;  once  a  year 
all  the  gymnasial  students  of  Saxe- Weimar  are  invited  to  a 
classic  drama  in  the  Court  Theatre.  Other  states  have  simi- 
lar customs,  and  everywhere  students  may  attend  the  best 
plays  and  hear  the  finest  music  at  greatly  reduced  rates.  In 
some  of  the  larger  cities  special  arrangements  are  made  where- 
by secondary-school  pupils  may  hear  the  best  dramas  for  about 
twenty  pfennigs — -five  cents — each.  No  school-boy  will  be  ad- 
mitted without  the  permission  of  the  director  of  his  school. 
Under  such  conditions  the  teacher  of  literature  is  indeed  fos- 
silized who  cannot  inspire  his  scholars  with  a  loftier  patriotic 
and  moral  ideal. 

The  readings  for  the  lower  and  middle  grades  have  no  regard 

for  the  historical  development  of  the  language  or  the  growth 

History  of      °^  *ke  literature.     Scientific  methods  are  first 

Language  and  employed  with  Obersecunda.  A  short  intro- 
Literature.  ducti0n  shows  the  place  of  German  in  the  Indo- 
European  family,  after  which  the  peculiarities  of  the  middle- 
high  German  are  learned  inductively  from  the  Nibelungenlied 
in  the  original  text.  Many  selections  from  the  early  writings 
are  read,  and  care  is  taken  to  classify  them  historically.  In 
Unterprima  the  development  of  the  new-high  German  is 
traced  in  the  literature  from  Luther  to  the  end  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  The  historical  study  of  the  literature  de- 
pends not  upon  names,  dates  and  titles,  but  upon  the  relation 
of  influences  to  results.  Shakespeare  finds  a  place  in  the  cur- 
riculum primarily  because  of  his  influence  upon  a  later  school 
of  German  writers.  In  Oberprima  a  .critical  study  of  Schiller 
and  Goethe  rounds  out  the  course  to  perfection.  It  has  been 
my  pleasure  to  hear  a  series  of  lessons  in  this  class  on  Goethe's 
Iphigenie  auf  Tanris,  conducted  by  a  live  teacher  of  a  live 
Gymnasium.  Under  his  skilful  leading  I  could  feel  the  in- 
terest of  the  class  increasing  daily,  till  the  height  was  reached 
in  Iphigenie's  monologue  in  the  fifth  scene  of  the  fourth  act. 
The  pent-up  emotion  of  all  that  had  preceded  found  expres- 
sion here.  No  member  of  that  class  was  unresponsive,  I  am 
certain,  to  those  agonizing  words  which  mark  the  climax : 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GERMAN  243 

"  Rettet  micli,  Und  relief  euer  Bild  in  meiner  Seele."  And  at 
the  next  lesson  I  was  gratified  to  hear  the  monologue — sev- 
enty-six lines — repeated  from  memory  with  scarcely  an  error. 
After  such  exhibitions  I  needed  not  be  told  that  for  gymnasial 
students  the  Iphigenie  stands  without  rival  in  the  literature. 

The  German  course,  as  I  have  tried  to  show,  is  designed  as 
a  unit  from  first  to  last.  It  recognises  two  principal  means 
of  teaching  language  :  (1)  through  the  ear,  and 

._.  a    1   u        •  The  Course  a  Unit. 

(2)  through  the  eye ;  nrst  hearing  with  speak- 
ing, and  then  seeing  with  reading  and  writing.  If  at  some 
time  in  the  course  one  method  is  emphasized  more  than  the 
other,  at  no  time  must  one  exclude  the  other.  "  It  is  fortu- 
nate that  so  much  stress  is  coming  to  be  put  on  the  spoken 
language  in  our  schools,"  said  a  university  professor  to  me 
once ;  "  we  are  naturally  a  race  of  readers  and  writers,  and 
are  prone  to  forget  that  language  may  be  something  apart 
from  books."  And  "reading"  is  not  skimming  over  printed 
pages  for  the  sake  of  the  story.  The  reader,  if  he  would  mas- 
ter what  he  reads,  must  read  not  once,  but  many  times  ;  must 
ponder  well  the  contents  ;  and  no  harm  is  done  if  he  commit  a 
goodly  part  to  memory.  But  I  repeat  again  :  the  course  is  a 
unit.  There  are  no  tests  in  "grammar,"  or  "spelling"  or 
"  rhetoric  ;  "  no  division  into  "  elementary  "  and  "  advanced  " 
German  ;  no  chapters  on  "  prefixes,  suffixes  and  stems ; "  no 
course  in  "literature,"  national  or  otherwise.  But  there  is 
most  emphatically  a  course  in  German. 

This  is  the  German  point  of  view.  And,  if  I  mistake  not, 
it  is  the  ideal  toward  which  American  educators  have  been 
tending  for  many  years.  Such  a  course  reads 

,,  .  ',  .     ,  Ideals  and  Results. 

well  on  paper,  and  theoretically  meets  with  gen- 
eral approval.  The  practical  workings,  however,  do  not  fur- 
nish grounds  for  unmixed  praise.  The  important  factor  in 
this,  as  in  all  school  problems,  is  the  teacher ;  if  he  is  all 
knowledge,  all  skill,  all  tact,  all  perfection,  the  highest  re- 
sults may  be  reached.  But  he  is  not  to  be  found  in  every 
German  school,  and  I  am  yet  to  be  convinced  that  his  species 
is  more  common  there  than  in  America.  He  is  a  rare  man 


244  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

who  can  be  at  once  a  specialist  and  a  successful  all-round 
teacher,  according  to  these  later-day  notions.  Indeed,  the  first 
requirement  of  the  aspirant  for  tutorial  honours  in  the  mother- 
tongue  is  not  that  he  shall  be  a  specialist,  but  a  form-master. 
The  Berlin  conference  recognized  this  fact,  and  gave  it  the 
prominence  it  deserves.  But,  with  all  deference  to  the  supe- 
rior learning  and  skill  of  German  school-masters,  I  am  of  the 
opinion  that  the  conditions  of  highest  success  in  teaching  the 
mother-tongue  will  be  met  quite  as  readily  on  American  soil 
as  in  the  fatherland.  American  teachers  are  to-day  perhaps 
no  nearer  being  form-masters  than  are  German  teachers,  but 
a  generation  at  least  of  gymuasial  specialists  must  pass  away 
before  the  spirit  of  the  new  program  will  find  expression  in 
true  heart  service. 

The  key  of  the  situation  is  admirably  put  in  the  closing 
paragraph  of  the  official  instructions  accompanying  the  Prus- 
sian syllabus  :  "The  instruction  in  German,  joined  with  that 
in  religion  and  history,  is  ethically  the  most  important  in  the 
organism  of  our  schools.  Its  tasks  are  extraordinarily  difficult, 
and  can  be  fully  discharged  only  by  that  teacher  who — sup- 
ported by  a  thorough  understanding  of  our  language  and  its 
history,  upheld  by  an  enthusiasm  for  the  treasures  of  our  lit- 
erature and  dominated  by  a  deep  sense  of  patriotism — knows 
how  to  enkindle  the  susceptible  hearts  of  our  youth  with  a 
passion  for  the  German  language,  the  German  life  and  the 
German  spirit." 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — Hiecke,  Der  deutsche  Unterricht  auf  deutschen 
Gymnasien,  Berlin,  18~>2  ;  Laas,  Der  deutsche  Aufsatz  in  der  oberen  Gym- 
nasialklassen,  Berlin,  1877 ;  Laas,  Der  deutsche  Unterricht  auf  den  ho- 
heren  Lehranstalten,  Berlin,  1872 ;  Hildebrand,  Der  deutsche  Sprachun- 
terricht  in  der  Schule,  Leipsic,  1887  ;  Miiller,  Quellenschriften  des 
deutschsprachlichen  Unterrichts,  Gotha,  1882  ;  Kern,  Zur  Methodik  des 
deutschen  Unterrichts,  1883;  Volcker,  Aufgaben  des  zu  verstdrkenden 
deutschen  Unterrichts,  Schonebeck,  1892 ;  Nagel,  Der  deutsche  Unterricht 
in  den  unteren  Klassen  der  hoh.  Bilrgerschulen,  Berlin,  1892 ;  Schmidt, 
Der  deutsche  Unterricht  in  der  Obersecunda,  Borna,  1892  ;  Miiller,  Der 
deutsche  Unterricht  auf  Realschulen,  Enulen,  1892;  Hand-Hooks  of  Bau- 
meister  and  Wychgram ;  Encyclopedias  of  Selmiid  and  lieio. 


CHAPTER 

INSTRUCTION  IN  GREEK  AND  LATIN       . 

"  THE  classical  literature  is,  and  will  continue  to  be,  the 
source  of  all  our  culture.  It  must  remain,  therefore,  not 
only  an  indispensable,  but  by  far  the  most  im-  centre  of 
portant,  study  in  our  higher  schools."  This  Gymnasiai 
thought,  expressed  a  century  ago  by  Frederick 
Gedike,  the  first  Oberschulrat  of  Prussia,  has  been  the  guid- 
ing principle  of  the  Gymnasien  to  the  present  time.  Through 
Winckelmann,  Lessing,  Herder,  Goethe  and  Schiller  the 
German  mind  was  made  ready  for  humanistic  training.  The 
ideals  of  the  new  humanism  were  embodied  by  Frederick 
August  Wolf  in  his  Science  of  Archceology — a  science  which 
included  not  only  the  classical  languages  and  litei  attires,  but 
all  that  was  concerned  in  the  civilizations  of  Greece  and  Rome. 
Its  h'ghest  aim  was  "the  knowledge  of  the  classical  humanity 
itself."  In  Wolf's  Seminar  in  Halle  the  men  were  trained 
"  who,  i"  the  higher  schools,  universities  and  educational 
counci^  of  a  great  part  of  Germany  and  of  Switzerland,  ex- 
erted an  unparalleled  influence  upon  the  subsequent  develop- 
ment of  the  higher  culture." 

The  influence  of  Wolf  and  his  school,  powerful  as  it  was, 
was  insufficient  to  preserve  the  spirit  of  the  new  movement 
from  violence  at  the  hands  of  those  who  were 
determined  to  nationalize  the  school  system,  and 
make  a  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Latin  the  con- 
dition of  admission  to  the  learned  professions  and  to  all  posi- 
tions of  honour  in  the  civil  service.  That  classical  study 
should  serve  other  ends  than  those  of  pure  culture  was  a 

245 


246  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

proposition  abhorrent  to  the  new  humanists.  Gesner,  the 
founder  of  the  movement  at  Gottingen,  considered  Latin  and 
Greek  quite  unnecessary  for  the  ordinary  trades  and  profes- 
sions and  for  civil  and  military  service.  Gedike  based  his 
hopes  of  true  educational  reform  on  the  conversion  of  all  so- 
called  Latin  schools  in  the  smaller  cities  into  genuine  Real- 
schulen,  and  the  reception  into  the  Gymnasien  only  of  such 
pupils  as  were  destined  to  become  learned  men.  Even  Wolf 
held  that  the  classics  were  valuable  only  to  the  learned  ;  Latin 
should  not  be  required  of  candidates  in  medicine,  and  Greek 
should  be  obligatory  only  for  gymnasial  teachers  and  students 
of  theology. 

The  place  of  the  ancient  languages  in  the  curriculum  of 
the  German  schools  during  the  greater  part  of  this  century 
has  been  determined  by  the  shifting  of  opin- 
AIm8  stud  E88       ^ons  Between  these  two  extremes — between  that 
view  which  makes   the  study  of  the  classics 
purely  a  formal  discipline,  and  that  other  view  which  bases 
the  worth  of  such  study  on  the  acquisition  of  humanistic 
culture,  on  contact  with  "  the  best  thoughts  of  the  best  men 
of  antiquity."    In  the  one  case  it  is  considered  of  equal  value 
as  a  means  of  preparation  for  all  trades  and  professions  depen- 
dent on  intellectual  acumen  ;  in  the  other  case  it  is  of  worth 
only  for  those  who  can  practically  apply  the  technical  knowl- 
edge thereby  acquired,  or  who  may  have  sufficient  leisure  to 
enjoy  its  aesthetic  qualities.     It  is  a  question  of  making  the 
ancient  literature  a  means  to  an  end  or  an  end  in  itself. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  state  system  of  education  the 
courses  of  study  of  all  schools  fitting  for  the  universities  be- 
came practically  uniform.  The  reforms  were 
carried  out  by  men  friendly  to  the  humanistic 
party,  but  they  encountered  strong  opposition. 
Not  only  were  a  majority  of  the  classical  teachers  unable  or 
unwilling  to  follow  the  new  ideals,  but  a  considerable  party 
in  the  state  was  barbarous  enough  to  think  that  what  the  na- 
tion most  needed  was  an  education  capable  of  producing  more 
patriotic  citizens.  The  Napoleonic  wars  were  a  rude  shock  to 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GREEK  AND  LATIN  247 

Goethe's  universal  Humanitdtsideal,  and  gave  decided  im- 
petus to  all  reactionary  influence.  The  gymnasial  program 
of  1816  put  much  emphasis  on  mathematics  to 

,,        ,.  .    T     ,.  ,  .   ,  T  Lehrplan  of  1816. 

the  disadvantage  of  Latin,  which  was  reduced 
to  76  week-hours  in  a  ten  years'  course,  and  made  Greek 
obligatory  with  50  week-hours.  After  the  entrance  of  Jo- 
hannes Schulze  into  the  Education  Department  in  1818, 
Latin  was  again  gradually  advanced  to  first  place.  A  plan 
of  supplementary  reading  followed  in  the  Gymnasium  of 
Dantzic  was  officially  recommended  to  all  directors,  the  time 
of  mathematics  being  soon  afterward  reduced  a  half  in  order 
to  make  it  possible.  In  this  way  the  schools  were  able  to 
read  the  following  works  :  "  The  entire  Iliad  and  Odyssey, 
several  dramas  of  ^Eschylus,  Sophocles  and  Euripides,  four 
books  of  Herodotus,  two  books  of  Thucydides,  the  Anabasis, 
several  of  Plutarch's  Lives,  Demosthenes'  Oration  on  the 
Crown,  Plato's  Phcedo,  all  of  Vergil  except  the  Georgics, 
Horace  complete,  Ovid's  Metamorphoses  complete  and  selec- 
tions from  other  poets,  Caesar's  Gallic  War  and  Civil  War 
complete,  five  or  six  books  of  Livy,  all  of  Sallust,  Tacitus' 
Annals,  many  of  Cicero's  Orations  and  de  amicitia,  de  senec- 
tute,  de  officiis,  de  divinatione  and  de  natura  deorum."  The 
speaking  of  Latin,  which  was  in  common  use  in  the  schools 
at  the  beginning  of  the  century,  gradually  fell  into  disuse. 
In  1834,  however,  it  was  ordered  that  the  final  examination 
in  Latin  should  be  conducted  in  Latin. 

In  response  to  a  popular  demand  that  the  gymnasial  re- 
quirements should  be  reduced,  a  new  program  was  announced 
in  1837,  according  to  which  the  seven  lower 

i  uj  A  i.  *    T     ^-  j   Lehrplan  of  1837. 

classes  had  each  10  hours  of  Latin  a  week  and 
the  two  upper  classes  8  each — total,  86  week-hours.  Greek 
was  taught  during  seven  years  6  hours  a  week.  Pupils  were 
not  admitted  to  the  Gymnasien  until  ten  years  of  age.  The 
prescribed  number  of  weekly  lessons— in  all,  32 — was  under 
no  condition  to  be  increased,  and  compulsory  private  reading 
was  abolished.  The  program  of  1856  emphasized  still  more 
strongly  the  formal  side  of  classical  training.  Four  to  six 


248  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

Latin  essays  were  required  each  semester;  Greek  prose  com- 
position was  included  in  the  final  examination.  The  oral  test 
in  both  Greek  and  Latin  was  to  be  conducted  in  Latin.  Ger- 
man literature,  French,  natural  science  and  philosophy  were 
omitted  entirely  from  the  final  examination.  Until  the  found- 
ing of  the  German  Empire  Latin  was  the  main  part  of  the 
gymnasial  course  ;  everything  was  subsidiary  to  the  classics. 
The  aim  was  to  afford  a  formal  training  without  any  regard 
whatsoever  to  the  pupil's  future  position  in  life.  A  thorough 
knowledge  of  Latin,  ability  to  read,  write  and  speak  it  with 
ease,  was  the  one  thing  necessary. 

In  the  70's  forces  which  had  long  been  dormant  or  held 

in  check  began   to  be  felt.     The  needs  of  a  great  nation 

made  new  demands  on  the  educational  system. 

Lehrplanofl882.  J 

Baden  and  Hesse  were  the  first  to  respond  by 
giving  more  time  to  science,  mathematics,  German  and 
French,  at  the  expense  of  the  classics.  The  literature  was 
made  the  central  point  of  the  work  in  Greek  and  Latin.  The 
Prussian  program  of  1882  reduced  the  week-hours  of  Latin 
from  86  to  77,  and  postponed  the  beginning  of  Greek  to 
Untertertia  with  a  total  of  40  week-hours.  The  literature 
was  mildly  emphasized,  but  much  stress  was  still  put  upon 
the  writing  of  correct  Latin.  The  formal  educational  value 
of  Latin  was  specially  recognised  in  the  transformation  of 
certain  Real-schools  into  Real gymnas ten,  i.e.,  Gymnasien 
without  Greek.  During  the  succeeding  decade  two  important 
tendencies  became  more  strongly  developed  :  (1)  the  modern 
side  of  education  was  evidently  growing  in  public  favour, 
stimulated  by  rapidly  increasing  industrial  needs  ;  and  (2)  in 
the  reaction  against  formalism  in  the  teaching  of  the  classics, 
the  revival  of  new  humanistic  ideals  was  becoming  more  ap- 
parent. The  reforms  of  1892  were,  indeed,  radical.  Emphasis 

was  placed  upon  the  need  of  a  national  education 

Lehrplan  of  1892.    .  *  . 

in  practical  lines,  as  distinguished  from  the  the- 
oretical training  of  the  mental  faculties.  A  patriotic  citi- 
zenship became  the  chief  end  of  all  school  v  ork.  Vigour  of 
mind  and  right  conduct  are  conditioned  by  health  of.  body ; 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GREEK  AND  LATIN  249 

physical  exercise,  therefore,  was  encouraged,  and  all  undue 
pressure  in  school  work  prohibited.  The  national  history  and 
literature  were  given  a  prominent  place ;  classics  were  set  back. 
Prussia  reduced  the  week-hours  in  Latin  from  77  to  62,  and  in 
Greek  from  40  to  36.  Bavaria  placed  Latin  at  66,  and  Greek 
at  36.  Both  Saxony  and  Wiirtemberg  made  reductions,  but  the 
hours  still  remain  much  above  the  average,  viz. :  Saxony,  Latin 
71-73,  and  Greek  40-42 ;  Wiirtemberg,  Latin  81,  and  Greek 
40  (classes  II.-X.).  The  most  significant  general  change  was 
in  the  emphasis  put  upon  the  literature  and  its  humanistic 
content.  Formal  drill  in  grammar  and  the  Latin  essay  were 
abolished.  "  Take  warning  ! "  says  an  opponent  of  the  re- 
forms, "nothing  but  financial  considerations  keeps  the  schools 
from  having  veritable  museums  of  classic  art.  They  would 
apparently  make  the  literature  a  basis  for  applied  archaeology 
and  the  essential  subject  in  a  course  in  art  history/' 

The  trend  of  the  opposition  to  the  formal  educational  value 
of  classical  study  was  clearly  manifest,  too,  in  the  attempted 
overthrow  of  the  Realgymnasien — an  abortive 
attempt,  to  be  sure,  but  nevertheless  indicative 
of  the  reaction  against  formalism  and  of  the 
increasing  importance  of  practical  education.  While  Latin 
is  still  retained  in  the  Prussian  Real  gymnasium,  its  efficiency 
is  endangered  by  the  manifest  hostility  of  the  government. 
Students  no  longer  feel  that  Latin  is  of  supreme  importance 
in  the  final  examination,  and  numerous  petty  official  acts 
show  all  too  clearly  that  the  authorities  do  not  consider  the 
Latin  instruction  in  the  Realgymnasium  of  much  account. 
In  fact,  one  can  find  very  little  spirited  Latin  work  in  these 
schools.  The  attitude  of  the  government  may  be  largely  re- 
sponsible for  the  results,  yet  there  is  another  not  unimpor- 
tant reason.  The  teachers  of  Latin  in  these  schools  are,  as  a 
rule,  elderly  men.  They  belong  to  a  generation  which  looked 
upon  the  study  of  the  classics  purely  as  a  formal  discipline ; 
and  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  they  find  themselves  in  a 
modern  environment,  it  is  with  great  difficulty  that  they  adjust 
themselves  to  the  practical  needs  of  the  Realgymnasien.  Fur- 


250  GERMAN  fflGHEIt  SCHOOLS 

thermore,  one  often  hears  it  said  that  the  less  promising 
candidates  for  teachers'  positions  are  "  steered"  into  the  Real- 
yymnasien.  At  any  rate,  an  influential  Gymnasium  not  infre- 
quently finds  a  means  of  having  an  undesirable  member  of  its 
staff  transferred  to  some  less  favoured  school.  The  relatively 
large  number  of  Realgymnasial  teachers  who  once  held  posts 
in  Gymnasien  suggests  that  the  Realgymnasium  is  the  chief 
sufferer. 

Were  it  not  for  the  far-reaching  system  of  privileges  con- 
nected with  graduation  from  classical  schools,  Latin  would 
speedily  disappear,  no  doubt,  from  the  Real- 
9ymnas^en-  But  as  long  as  admission  to  higher 
courses  in  the  university  and  appointment  to 
the  better  places  in  the  civil  service  are  conditioned  by  the 
study  of  Latin,  so  long  will  the  ambitious  spirit  of  the  Ger- 
man middle  classes  insist  on  the  retention  of  the  Realgymna- 
sium at  any  cost.  And,  besides,  there  are  such  men  as  Pro- 
fessor Paulsen,  of  Berlin,  who  maintains  that  a  knowledge  of 
the  Latin  language  is  an  essential  element  in  a  practical  ed- 
ucation— that  the  man,  as  Schopenhauer  says,  who  knows  not 
the  influences  of  Koine  on  our  modern  civilization  is  like  a 
traveller  in  a  beautiful  country  enveloped  in  a  dense  fog. 
Merely  as  an  information  subject,  therefore,  Latin  deserves  a 
place  in  every  school  that  leads  to  the  university  and  to  the 
higher  positions  in  the  state. 

What  the  outcome  will  be  of  all  this  discussion  cannot  be 
predicted.  This  much  at  least  seems  assured,  that  the  mid- 
dle classes  will  insist  on  a  fair  representation  in  the  govern- 
ment and  in  the  civil  and  military  service.  If  Latin  is  a  con- 
ditio  sine  qua  non,  then  Latin  will  be  kept  in  the  higher 
schools  ;  if  the  training  of  the  Oberrealschulen  is  considered 
sufficient  for  all  purposes,  save  for  entrance  upon  certain  lines 
of  professional  study,  then  we  may  expect  the  gradual  extinc- 
tion of  the  Realgymnasien.  In  short,  it  would  seem  that  the 
future  of  classical  study  were  more  dependent  upon  social 
ideals  and  economic  conditions  than  has  hitherto  been  the 
case.  It  is  not  in  accord  with  German  imperialism  to  con- 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GREEK  AND  LATIN  251 

cede  inuch  to  the  demands  of  the  industrial  classes,  but  the 
time  is  not  far  distant  when  certain  new  and  rapidly  increas- 
ing forces  in  the  German  social  life  must  be  recognised.  And 
when  that  time  comes  it  will  bring  with  it  greater  reforms  in 
the  school  system  than  we  have  yet  seen. 

A  significant  movement  looking  to  a  compromise  between 
the  factions  warring  over  the  place  of  classical  study  in  liberal 
education  is  that  for  the  Reformschule.  One 
of  the  severest  charges  brought  against  the  old 
Gymnasien  is  that  parents  must  practically  de- 
cide the  future  career  of  their  sons  when  first  they  are  sent  to 
school.  What  father  knows  the  bent  of  his  son  at  nine  years 
of  age  ?  How  can  he  intelligently  mark  out  a  course  of  study 
before  he  knows  anything  of  the  boy's  aptitude  in  studies  ? 
Not  long  since  I  heard  a  prominent  physician  of  Leipsic  enter 
a  most  emphatic  protest  to  an  assembly  of  teachers  against 
the  responsibility  placed  on  him  in  the  selection  of  a  course 
of  study  for  his  nine-year-old  boy.  "  I  have  carefully  studied 
the  child,"  said  the  father,  "  since  his  birth,  but  I  feel  that  I 
am  in  no  position  to  decide  the  matter.  The  boy  himself  is 
uncertain  whether  he  wishes  to  become  a  street-car  conductor 
or  a  general  in  the  army."  The  gymnasial  pupil  at  fifteen  is 
debarred  from  choosing  a  technical  profession ;  the  Real- 
school  boy  at  fifteen  finds  it  a  thorny  road  that  leads  to  the 
university.  There  are,  indeed,  a  few  notable  exceptions  to  the 
rule,  but  the  obstacles  which  the  few  succeed  in  overcoming 
suffice  to  dissuade  the  many  from  the  attempt. 

For  several  years  Director  Schlee,  of  Altona,  has  had  royal 
permission  to  begin  the  course  in  his  Realgymnasium  with 
French  instead  of  Latin,  and  later  on  to  give  to 

0  In  Altona. 

Latin  some  of  the  time  that  would  ordinarily 
go  to  French.  In  this  way  the  curriculum  for  the  first  three 
years  is  made  to  accord  with  that  of  the  Realschule.  Pupils, 
therefore,  can  pass  easily  from  one  school  to  the  other  so  late 
as  Untertertia.  At  fifteen  years  of  age  a  pupil  would  have 
no  greater  difficulty  in  making  a  change  than  at  twelve  under 
the  old  plan.  The  success  of  the  Altona  experiment  was  so 


252  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

marked  that  at  Easter,  1892,  the  plan,  in  a  slightly  modified 
form,  was  introduced  into  all  the  higher  schools  of  Franklort- 
on-the-Main.  Latin  is  begun  in  the  Gymna- 
sium in  Untertertia  with  ten  hours  a  week.  The 
total  week-hours  for  the  six  years'  course  amount  to  fifty-two. 
Greek  is  begun  two  years  later  with  eight  hours  a  week — an 
allotment  that  is  maintained  during  the  four  years.  In  the 
Realgymnasium  English  takes  the  place  of  Greek.  In  other 
respects  there  is  no  great  divergence  from  the  governmental 
program. 

The  Frankfort  plan  is  vigorously  championed  by  a  party 
of  reformers  not  only  for  its  practical  advantages,  but  for  ped- 
agogical reasons  as  well.  They  claim  that  the 
crariderations  on^  rational  method  of  teaching  language  to 
children  of  nine  and  ten  years  of  age  is  the  in- 
ductive, all  the  time  using  the  language  so  far  as  possible  as 
if  it  were  the  mother-tongue.  Habits  of  speech,  rather  than 
thought  and  judgment,  should  be  the  chief  aim  at  first. 
Latin  was  once  so  taught  because  Latin  was  then  a  popular 
tongue.  Times  have  changed,  and  it  is  now  little  short  of 
farcical  to  insist  on  treating  Latin  as  a  spoken  language. 
Still,  it  is  recognised  that  a  humanistic  training  is  desirable. 
Some  language  should  be  begun  when  a  child  enters  school.  It 
should  be  a  living  language.  French,  therefore,  satisfies  the 
theoretical  conditions,  and  besides  has  a  practical  value  that 
commends  it  to  the  German  people.  The  training  in  French 
during  the  first  three  years  of  schooling  should  lay  such  a 
foundation,  should  cultivate  such  linguistic  sensibility,  that 
better  work  can  be  done  in  Latin  in  the  succeeding  six  years 
than  has  formerly  been  possible  in  the  full  nine  years'  course.1 
Here,  then,  there  is  an  attempt  at  sailing  a  middle  course 
between  the  old  order  and  the  new.  If  it  succeeds,  it  will  be 
proclaimed  a  rational  solution  of  a  difficult  problem.  Whether, 
as  a  compromise — for  that  is  really  what  it  is — it  will  please 
either  party,  will  depend  largely  upon  the  outcome  of  the 

1  See  :  Reinharrtt,  Die  Schitlordnung  in  Comenius  Unterrichtslehre  und 
die  Frankfurter  Lehrpldne,  Leipsic,  18U4. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GREEK  AND  LATIN  253 

more  radical  plans  now  being  urged.     If  the  Frankfort  plan 
fails,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  fault  will  not  lie  with  Director 
Reinhardt  and  his  associates,  who  have  entered 
upon  the  work  with  unbounded  faith  in  its 

Significance. 

possibilities,  and  who  are  eminently  qualified 
in  every  way  to  realize  its  highest  ideals.  The  experiment 
in  Frankfort  will  be  watched  with  increasing  interest  for 
three  years  to  come.  In  1901  the  first  class  to  make  the 
trial  will  be  graduated ;  the  attainments  of  this  class  will  have 
an  important  influence  in  shaping  the  future  curriculum  for 
the  German  higher  schools. 

The  present,  it  is  apparent,  is  a  period  of  transition  in  the 
instruction  in  Greek  and  Latin.     Uncertainty  and  confusion 
are  to  be  found  in  most  schools  ;  and  not  a  few    The  Pregent  a 
teachers  openly  assert  their  disdain  of  the  new       Period  of 
order,  and  express  a  determination  to  cling  to       Transition, 
their  old  methods  till  the  curriculum  shall  again  be  revised. 
Uniformity  in  method  or  in  scope  of  work  cannot  be  expected 
until  time  shall  remove  or  harmonize  the  multiplicity  of  dis- 
turbing elements. 

The  official  syllabus  allows  considerable  freedom  of  choice 
in  the  matter  of  text-books  and  subject-matter.  For  this 
reason  one  rarely  finds  precisely  the  same  work  being  done  at 
a  given  time  even  in  the  schools  of  the  same  city.  Then,  too, 
there  is  a  variation  from  year  to  year  in  the  selections  from 
the  literature,  in  order  to  avoid  repetition  for  pupils  set  back. 
The  plan  gives  zest  to  the  teacher's  work  as  well. 

In  giving  the  course  of  study  for  a  particular  school,  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  can  at  best  be  only  a  type. 
No  other  school  may  be  doing  precisely  the 

J  Couree  of  Study. 

same  work  ;  the  differences,  however,  are  of 
minor  consequence.  For  purposes  of  illustration,  I  present 
herewith  an  outline  of  the  work  in  1894-1895  in  Latin  and 
Greek  in  the  Stddtisches  Gymnasium,  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
This  school  is  noted  not  only  for  the  excellence  of  its  classical 
instruction,  but  also  for  its  general  progressive  spirit.  In 
1894,  when  I  visited  the  school,  it  had  about  six  hundred 


254  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

pupils  in  nineteen  classes  under  thirty-two  teachers.  In  real- 
ity, however,  there  are  two  schools  of  about  three  hundred 
pupils  each,  united  in  name  and  under  one  general  manage- 
ment, but  essentially  distinct  in  internal  arrangement  and 
methods  of  work.  The  program  given  below  is  from  the 
division  which  is  following  the  prescribed  governmental  cur- 
riculum. (I  have  already  referred  to  the  plan  adopted  by 
the  other  division.)  For  the  sake  of  comparison,  I  give  also 
the  Latin  course  of  the  Dorotheenstadtisches  Realgymnasium, 
Berlin.  The  differences  in  time  and  amount  in  the  last  six 
years  correspond  to  the  official  requirements. 

GYMNASIUM  (AND    REALGYMNASIUM). 

SEXTA.  Latin,  8  hours.  Perthes'  Reader  for  VI.  and  the 
corresponding  vocabulary  and  forms.  Written  class  exercise 
once  a  week. 

QUINTA.  Latin,  8  hours.  Keview  of  regular  forms  ;  de- 
ponents ;  common  irregular  forms  ;  memorizing  of  selections 
and  vocabulary  from  Perthes'  Reader  for  V.  Study  of  ace. 
c.  inf.  and  aU.  abs.;  construction  of  city  names.  One  written 
class  exercise  and  one  home  task  a  week. 

QUARTA.  Latin,  7  hours.  Reading  (4  hrs.):  Nepos,  12 
vitcB.  Grammar,  (3  hrs.):  review  of  forms;  essentials  of 
case.  Latin  composition.  Translation  into  Latin  as  class 
exercise  once  a  week  ;  two  written  translations  into  German 
each  half-year. 

GYMNASIUM. 

UNTERTERTIA.  Latin,  7  hours.  Reading (4  hrs.):  Cassar, 
Gallic  War,  I. -IV.  Grammar  (3  hrs.):  Review  of  case  ;  main 
rules  of  mode  and  tense  ;  oral  and  written  translations  ;  text- 
book, Ostermann's  for  III.  Class  exercise  in  writing  Latin 
once  a  week ;  written  translation  into  German  every  six 
weeks. 

UNTERTERTIA.  Greek,  6  hours.  Regular  Attic  forms  up 
to  and  including  liquid  verbs.  Memorizing  of  words  ;  text- 
book, Wetzel's  Ueoungsfouch.  Translation  from  Wetzel,  §§ 
1-90.  Written  translations  every  two  weeks. 

REALGYMNASIUM. 

UNTERTERTIA.  Latin,  4  hours.  Reading  (2  hrs.) :  Caesar, 
Gallic  War,  I.,  II.,  III.,  7-19.  Grammar  (2  hrs.) :  Review 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GREEK  AND  LATIN  255 

of  case  and  mode  as  far  as  learned  in  IV. ;  further  study  of  case. 
Written  and  oral  translation  from  and  into  Latin,  one  exercise 
every  two  weeks. 

GYMNASIUM. 

OBERTERTIA.  Latin,  7  hours.  Reading  (4  hrs.):  Selec- 
tions from  Ovid's  Metamorphoses;  Caesar,  Gallic  War,  V. 
(from  ch.  38),  VI.,  VII.  Grammar  (3  hrs.):  Review  and  con- 
tinuation of  mode  and  tense ;  main  rules  of  verb-syntax  ; 
text-book,  Gillhausen.  Oral  translations  from  Ostermann. 
Each  week  a  translation  into  Latin  based  on  Caesar  ;  every 
six  weeks  a  written  translation  from  Caesar. 

OBERTERTIA.  Greek,  6  hours.  Grammar  (3-2  hrs.)  : 
Verbs  in  p.i  and  the  most  important  irregular  verbs.  Review 
and  extension  of  forms  ;  text-book,  Homer.  Greek  composi- 
tion for  practice  in  forms  ;  text-book,  Wetzel.  Every  two 
weeks  a  written  class  exercise  or  home  task  based  on  the  read- 
ing. Reading  (3-4  hrs.) :  At  first  from  Wetzel;  later,  Xen., 
Anab.,  I.-IIL,  selections.  Practice  in  retranslation  and  nar- 
rating contents. 

REALGYMNASIUM. 

OBERTERTIA.  Latin,  4  hours.  Reading  (2  hrs.) :  Caesar, 
Gallic  War,  IV.,  1-3,  V.,  VI.,  11-24  and  parts  of  25-51, 
VII.;  Ovid,  III.,  1-137.  Grammar  (2  hrs.)  :  Review  of  case  ; 
essentials  of  tense  and  mode.  Written  exercise  once  in  two 
weeks. 

GYMNASIUM. 

UNTERSECUNDA.  Latin,  7  hours.  Reading  (4  hrs.):  Li vy, 
XXI.  (selections)  and  XXII. ;  Vergil,  VI.  Training  in  prep- 
aration of  lesson.  Practice  in  sight  translation  and  retrans- 
lation. Memorizing  of  selections  of  poetry.  Study  of  style 
and  synonyms  based  on  reading.  Grammar  (3  hrs.):  Reviews 
and  advance.  Every  week  a  translation  into  Latin  as  class 
exercise  or  home  task  ;  every  six  weeks  a  written  translation 
from  the  Latin. 

UNTERSECUNDA.  Greek,  6  hours.  Review  of  forms.  Case- 
syntax.  Essentials  of  mode.  Reading  :  Xen.,  Anab.,  IV., 
and  Hellen.,  VI.  and  VII.  (selections) ;  Homer,  Odyssey,  V. 
and  VI.  Written  class  exercise  every  two  weeks. 

REALGYMNASIUM. 

UNTERSECUNDA.  Latin,  3  hours.  Reading  (2  hrs.):  (Only 
one  author  read  at  a  time,  hence  not  prose  and  poetry  to- 


256  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

f  ether  ;  one-third  of  the  time  given  to  poetry)  Curtius,  BJcs. 
II.,  IV.,  VI.-VIIL;  Ovid,  Metamor.,  I.,  1-4,  89-112,  I.,  253- 
312,  IV.,  GG3-772  (Andromeda),  IV.,  773-789  (Medusa),  V., 
385-408,  438-445,  505-538,  504-571  (Ceres),  IX.,  98-153 
(Nessus),  VI.,  146-312  (Niobe),  VIII. ,  159-182  (Ariadne), 
VIII.,  183-236  (Daedalus  and  Icarus).  Study  of  hexameter. 
Grammar  (1  hr.):  Reviews  of  forms  and  syntax.  Every  two 
weeks  a  translation  from  the  Latin  or  into  Latin. 

GYMNASIUM. 

OBERSECUNDA.  Latin,  6  hours.  Beading  (5  hrs.) :  Livy, 
XXII.;  Cicero,  Sex.  Roscius  ;  Vergil,  ^En.,  IV.  and  VI.  and 
selections  from  the  remaining  books  ;  study  of  the  Epic. 
Every  two  weeks  written  class  exercise  based  on  reading  or 
home  task  from  dictation  ;  every  six  weeks  a  translation 
from  the  Latin  as  class  exercise.  Grammar  (1  hr.)  :  Reviews 
in  connection  with  the  written  exercises. 

OBERSECUNDA.  Greek,  6  hours.  Reading  (5  hrs.) :  Xen., 
Memor.,  III.  and  IV.  (selections) ;  Herodot.,  VIII.  (selections) ; 
Horn.,  Odys.,  VIl.,  VIII.  (selections),  IX.-XIL,  XXI.  and 
XXII.  Written  translations  from  the  Greek  once  in  four 
weeks.  Grammar  (1  hr.):  Syntax  of  mode  and  tense  ;  infini- 
tive, participle.  Review  of  forms. 

REAI«GYMNASIUM. 

OBERSECUNDA.  Latin,  3  hours.  Reading  (2  hrs.) :  Sal- 
lust,  Jugurtha,  Catilina ;  Ovid,  Metamor.,  VI.,  146-312 
(Niobe),  VIII.,  611  ff.  (Philemon  and  Baucis).  Review  of 
grammar  and  metric ;  occasional  retranslation.  . 

GYMNASIUM. 

UNTERPRIMA.  Latin,  6  hours.  Reading  (5  hrs.):  Tacitus, 
Hist.,  I.,  1-51  ;  selections  from  Cicero's  letters ;  Horace, 
Carm.,  I.-IV.  (selections);  Epod.,  2  ;  Epist.,  I.,  2  ;  Cicero, 
Manil.  Translation  at  sight.  Private  readings  from  Livy, 
Curtius,  etc.  Memorizing  of  passages,  mostly  from  Horace. 
Every  two  weeks  a  translation  into  Latin — often  based  on 
reading — as  class  exercise  or  home  task  ;  translations  from 
the  Latin  and  critical  exposition  of  same.  Drill  in  grammar, 
synonyms  and  style. 

UNTERPHIMA.  Greek,  6  hours.  Reading  :  Thucydides,  I.; 
Plato,  Kriton  ;  Homer,  Iliad,  I. -XVI.  (.^elections);  Sopho- 
cles, Antigone.  Memorizing  of  selected  passages.  Written 


257 

translations  from  the  Greek  and  critical  exposition.     Occa- 
sional reviews  of  grammar. 

REALGYMNASIUM. 

UNTERPRIMA.  Latin,  3  hours.  Reading  (2  hrs.)  :  Livy, 
I.  (selections);  Vergil,  JEneid,  I.  and  II.  (in  part);  Cicero,  in 
Catilinam,  I.  and  IV.  (in  part).  Every  two  weeks  written 
exercises  (usually  in  class) ;  translations  from  Livy  and  Cicero. 
Grammar  (1  hr.) :  Reviews ;  occasional  drill  in  retranslation 
from  German. 

GYMNASIUM. 

OBERPRIMA.  Latin,  6  hours.  Reading  (5  hrs.)  :  Tacitus, 
Annal.,  I.  and  part  of  II.,  G er "mania ;  Cicero,  P.  Sestius  ; 
Horace,  Epist.,  I.,  17-20,  II.,  1-3,  Satires,  I.  (selec.),  II.,  6 
and  8.  Private  readings  from  Sallust  (Catilina),  Livy,  Cur- 
tius,  etc.  Translation  at  sight.  Memorizing  of  passages 
from  Horace.  Written  translations  and  exercises  as  in  Unter- 
prima. 

OBERPRIMA.  Greek,  6  hours.  Reading  :  Plato,  Phcedo 
(in trod,  and  conclusion)  ;  Protagoras  (selections) ;  Demos- 
thenes, Olynth.,  III.,  Phil.,  L,  III.;  Homer,  Iliad,  IX.,  XL, 
XII.,  XIv.-XXIL,  XXIV.;  Sophocles,  Antigone ;  selections 
from  lyric  poets  (StolFs  Anthologie).  Memorizing  of  select 
passages  from  the  poets.  Occasional  grammatical  reviews  as 
needed.  Written  translation  from  the  Greek  each  month. 

REALGYMNASIUM. 

OBERPRIMA.  Latin,  3  hours.  Reading  :  selections  from 
Catullus,  Horace,  Ovid  and  Vergil  (Mann's  Anthologie  ro- 
misvher  Dichter) ;  Livy,  XXIII.  and  II.  (in  part).  Occa- 
sional reviews  of  grammar.  Written  exercise  once  in  two 
weeks. 

The  prominence  given  to  the  thought-content,  intellectual, 
{esthetic  and  moral,  in  all  classical  study  is  everywhere  appar- 
ent in  the  new  program.  It  decides  what  authors 
are  to  be  read,  and  the  relative  worth  of  each  ; 
it  gives  a  new  view-point  for  estimating  the  value  of  gram- 
matical rules,  composition  and  the   oral  use  of  the  classic 
tongues.     Pupils  are  to  study  Latin  and  Greek,  not  for  a 
mental  discipline  which  will  enable  them  to  solve  any  intel- 
n 


258  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

lectual  task  no  matter  how  difficult  or  disagreeable,  bu£  for 
the  purpose  of  bringing  into  their  lives  the  noblest  and  best 
influences  of  the  spiritual  life  of  classic  antiquity.  The 
ability  to  understand  and  interpret  the  literature,  rather  than 
facility  in  using  the  language,  is  the  chief  end.  It  is  this 
view,  emphasized  so  strongly  in  the  Conference  of  1890,  that 
is  responsible  for  the  present  uncertainty  in  methods  of  teach- 
ing Latin  and  Greek.  Each  teacher  who  accepts  the  dictum 
of  the  government  is  obliged  perforce  to  readjust  his  meth- 
ods to  the  new  conditions.  Formal  grammar  is  ruled  out. 
The  Latin  essay  is  banished.  Composition  in  Latin  and 
Greek  may  no  longer  be  practised  for  the  sake  of  style.  No 
time  is  allowed  for  drill  in  speaking  Latin.  Cicero,  the  Latin- 
ist,  is  dethroned,  and  Cicero,  the  statesman  and  moralist,  ex- 
alted in  his  stead.  No  wonder  the  scholar  of  other  days  sees 
only  ruin  ahead.  His  idols  have  fallen,  and  with  them  his 
hope  for  the  future. 

A  generally  accepted  norm  in  methods,  therefore,  cannot 

be  found.     Not  a  few  teachers,  disdainful  of  the  new-fangled 

notions  and  devotedly  loyal   to   that  form  of 

Difficulties.  .    .  .  J        • ' 

training  which  has  created  lor  them  a  second 
mother-tongue,  hold  to  the  pedagogical  omnipotence  of  the 
Latin  language.  The  man  that  exercises  his  intellect,  it  is 
claimed,  in  thinking,  writing  and  speaking  Latin  becomes 
thereby  twice  a  man.  With  this  class  of  teachers  memory  is 
the  dominant  faculty,  and  methods  of  instruction  are  chiefly 
designed  to  exercise  this  faculty.  Repetition  is  the  means  to 
the  end.  There  is  another  class  of  teachers  who  accept  the 
new  doctrine  theoretically,  but  for  lack  of  adaptability  are 
practically  unable  to  lift  themselves  out  of  the  old  ruts. 
They  do  as  they  always  have  done,  but  hope  for  different  re- 
sults. Lack  of  confidence  in  themselves  and  want  of  ability 
to  adapt  means  to  ends  limit  their  success.  There  are  teach- 
ers, however — many  of  them — who,  knowing  what  is  wanted 
and  heartily  sympathizing  with  its  objects,  throw  themselves 
unreservedly  into  the  work  of  establishing  order  amidst  the 
prevailing  confusiou.  It  is  this  party,  I  believe,  that  repre- 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GREEK  AND  LATIN  259 

sents  the  latest,  and  what  bids  fair  eventually  to  become  the 
prevailing  mode  of  thought.  Their  practice,  varied  as  it  is  at 
present,  tends  toward  uniformity  along  certain  lines.  These 
lines  I  shall  attempt  to  follow. 

The  subject-matter  of  instruction  in  all  classes  is  selected 
with  a  view  to  its  thought-content,  rather  than  as  a  means  of 
exercising  the  linguistic  faculty.  Forms  and 
expressions  of  rare  occurrence  are  avoided.  The  ^o^t  m 
logical  development  of  the  language,  while  not 
put  prominently  forward  by  way  of  grammatical  formulae,  is 
nevertheless  not  neglected.  At  the  beginning  the  teacher 
pronounces  a  Latin  sentence,  translates  it,  writes  it  on  the 
board.  The  class  reads  it  and  gives  the  German  equivalent, 
at  first  singly  and  later  in  concert.  A  series  of  such  sen- 
tences are  learned,  giving  several  forms  of  the  first  declension. 
Next  follows  the  explanation  of  case-endings  of  familiar 
words  and  drill  on  the  complete  declension.  The  same  plan 
is  followed  in  the  matter  of  conjugation,  all  the  time  avoiding 
irregular  and  uncommon  forms.  Paradigms  are  thus  built 
up,  and  for  each  form  the  pupil  has  a  sentence  at  command. 
The  same  holds  true  of  rules  of  syntax  ;  by  induction  the 
rule  is  formulated,  and  for  illustration  of  its  use  several  exam- 
ples are  already  at  hand.  Further,  a  careful  record  is  kept  of 
each  new  word  as  it  occurs.  Thus  vocabulary,  forms  and  syn- 
tax keep  even  pace. 

During  the  first  three  years  there  is  little  change  in  method. 
Teachers  are  often  promoted  with  their  classes,  in  order  to 
avoid  all  possible  disturbing  influences.  In 
time,  short,  detached  sentences  give  way  to 
connected  discourse ;  a  text-book  is  depended 
upon  for  new  material  ;  more  and  more  time  is  given  to  oral 
and  written  translation.  Incessant  drill  and  repetition,  often 
conducted  with  surprising  rapidity,  are  the  means  employed 
to  fasten  it  in  the  pupil's  mind.  And  aside  from  a  well- 
learned  vocabulary,  forms  and  rules  of  syntax,  the  method 
familiarizes  the  pupil  with  a  large  number  of  common  phrases 
which  enable  him,  even  in  Quarta,  to  retranslate  sentences 


260  GERMAN  IIIQHER  SCHOOLS 

into  Latin  with  surprising  skill.  Nepos  is  "  read  at  sight/' 
as  it  would  b?  called  in  most  American  schools.  New  words 
and  constructions  are  explained  by  the  teacher  ;  the  rest  must 
be  done  by  the  pupils  in  class.  Home  study,  for  which  only 
about  twenty  minutes  are  allowed,  is  mainly  given  to  writing 
up  the  note-book,  or  reviewing  a  bit  of  translation  already 
done  in  class. 

One  point  deserves  notice  here.  Whereas  the  inductive 
method  is  in  high  favor  with  the  best  classical  teachers,  they 
do  not,  so  far  as  I  know,  ever  go  to  the  length 
of  depending  upon  some  standard  text  for  all 
the  material  used  in  the  introductory  course.  Two  reasons 
are  urged  :  in  the  first  place,  Nepos  (much  more  then  Caesar 
or  Xenophon)  gives  too  many  irregular  and  unusual  forms  for 
the  beginner,  and,  besides,  such  an  author  does  not  facilitate 
the  building  up  of  a  symmetrical  body  of  grammatical  knowl- 
edge. And  without  a  thorough  knowledge  of  grammatical 
forms  and  principles,  no  foreign  language  can  be  learned  from 
a  few  recitations  a  week.  Hence,  Latin  for  beginners  must 
be  Latin  written  or  selected  for  the  purpose.  Some  schools — 
Jena,  for  example — use  Latin  stories  written  expressly  for 
class  use.  A  commoner  practice,  however,  is  to  make  selec- 
tions from  standard  authors,  eliminating  undesirable  parts. 
Careful  editing  will,  with  few  changes,  give  a  continuous  nar- 
rative, which  is  generally  preferred  after  the  first  few  weeks. 

Retroversion,  so-called,   is  an  exercise  much  used  in  all 

grades.     One  pupil  reads  a  Latin  sentence  slowly  ;  another 

repeats  it  with  book  closed  ;  a  third  translates 

Translation.        ..  .,  T      .  TT     . 

it ;  a  fourth  puts  it  again  into  Latin.  Vari- 
ation, which  is  begun  in  the  lower  grades,  comes  increas- 
ingly into  prominence.  Here  the  teacher  gives  a  thought  in 
German  ;  a  pupil  is  asked  to  recast  it  in  better  German  form  ; 
the  next  pupil  construes  it  in  German  ;  and  another  puts  it 
into  Latin.  The  reading  of  the  day  furnishes  the  material. 
In  the  lower  grades  the  variation  is  mainly  in  tense,  number, 
person,  use  of  interrogatives,  etc. ;  in  the  upper  grades  par- 
aphrasing conies  into  play.  Until  all  danger  of  misapprehen- 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GREEK  AND  LATIN  261 

sion  of  the  thought  has  passed,  the  German  forms  are  always 
given  and  carefully  construed.  In  this  respect,  perhaps,  as 
much  as  in  any  other,  is  seen  the  tendency  of  the  modern 
methods.  Formerly  the  custom  was  to  have  memorized  large 
amounts  of  the  text,  putting  the  main  stress  on  vocabulary  ; 
translation  was  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  To-day  trans- 
lation is  to  the  front ;  the  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  thought- 
content.  In  order  to  understand  the  thought  the  pupil  must 
associate  it  with  what  he  already  knows,  i.e.,  with  the  mother- 
tongue. 

The  division  between  the  Gymnasium  and   the  Redlgym- 
nasium  comes  with  Untertertia.      The  program  above  given 

shows  the  lines  of  cleavage.     The  formal  gram- 

,     ,  .,,,  .  -•      n  Literature. 

mar  of  the  middle  grades  is  practically  com- 
pleted with  Untertertia,  but  until  the  end  of  the  sixth  school- 
year  full  one-half  of  the  time  is  given  to  exercises  involving 
an  application  of  grammatical  principles.  The  aim,  however, 
as  I  have  tried  to  make  clear,  is  the  understanding  of  the  lit- 
erature ;  grammar  is  an  important  means  to  that  end.  Hence, 
it  rarely  happens  that  an  hour  is  given  up  to  drill  on  gram- 
mar alone.  The  periods  scheduled  for  grammar  in  the  middle 
grades  are  employed  in  construing  parts  of  the  text  already 
read  and  in  preparing  for  future  translation.  Incidentally, 
much  grammatical  drill  is  given  ;  but  the  immediate  end  is  a 
better  understanding  of  the  text,  in  order  to  facilitate  transla- 
tion. Since  the  Latin  essay  and  verse-making  are  done  away 
with,  the  only  test  of  the  student's  appreciation  of  the  classic 
language  is  in  the  skill  he  displays  in  retroversion  and  the 
excellence  of  his  translations.  The  Latin  composition  form- 
ally prescribed  in  the  program  is  merely  a  summary  of  the 
"grammar"  work  of  the  week. 

The  work  of  the  lower  and  middle  grades  is  but  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  real  work  of  the  course,  which  is 
to  be  found  par  excellence  in  the  upper  classes, 
This  is  divided  into  three  main  lines — poetical, 
historical  and  philosophical.     The  reading  of  poetry  which  is 
begun  in  Untersecunda  culminates  in  Vergil,  Ovid  and  Hor- 


262  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ace,  and  in  Homer — beginning  with  the  Odyssey — ^Eschylus 
and  Sophocles.  Here,  in  addition  to  a  thorough  understand- 
ing of  the  text,  an  appreciation  of  its  aesthetic  qualities  is 
insisted  upon.  A  taste  for  the  beautiful  in  literature  grows 
by  what  it  feeds  on.  Mere  admiration  of  the  beautiful  is  not 
sufficient.  Full  possession  demands  that  the  student  memo- 
rize choice  selections — make  them  his  own.  A 
German  Primaner  has  at  his  tongue's  end  many 
Odes  of  Horace  and  much  of  ^Eschylus  and  Sophocles.  Aside 
from  the  pleasure  which  such  possession  gives,  it  has  a  ped- 
agogic value  in  the  interpretation  of  new  material.  A  student 
knowing  half  of  Horace  by  heart  has  not  merely  a  wealth  of 
apperceptive  material  for  the  other  half,  but  a  command  of 
phraseology,  metre  and  happy  turns  of  thought  which  must 
needs  make  new  translation  a  pleasure. 

With  the  Greek  dramatists  the  acme  of  poetic  style  is 
reached,  and  in  them  the  great  problems  of  human  life  con- 
front the  student.  Nowhere  in  the  course  is  the  poet's  art  at 
better  advantage  ;  nowhere  is  the  ethical  content  so  promi- 
nent. The  true  teacher — he  who  believes  in  teaching  men, 
not  books — finds  in  the  pages  of  Sophocles  opportunities  un- 
paralleled in  the  ancient  literature.  With  a  class  thoroughly 
at  home  in  the  technique  of  the  drama,  knowing  pages  of  it 
by  heart,  what  cannot  a  teacher  accomplish  !  I  have  heard 
such  masters  as  Directors  Muff  of  Cassel,  Reinhardt  of  Frank- 
fort and  Richter  of  Jena — not  to  mention  others — teach 
Sophocles  in  a  way  to  make  one  uncertain  which  to  admire 
most,  the  marvellous  beauty,  depth  of  emotion  and  ethical 
content  of  the  tragedy,  or  the  artistic  power  of  the  teacher  in 
making  every  scene  pulsate  with  life  and  every  sentence  speak 
straight  to  the  hearts  of  his  students.  The  ethical,  the 
aesthetic  and  the  patriotic  blend  in  one. 

The  Latin  historians  have  something  definite  to  tell  the 

German  student  of  his  country's  historic  past.     Tacitus  and 

Caesar  are  but  a  step  farther  removed  from  his 

present  than  Charlemagne.     Livy,  Sallust  and 

Thucydides  are  connecting  links  with  antiquity.     They  give 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GREEK  AND  LATIN  263 

the  setting,  too,  for  much  of  the  literature  read  in  the  upper 
classes.  Hence,  if  there  were  no  direct  arguments  for  placing 
historical  prose  in  the  curriculum,  it  would  still  find  a  place 
because  of  its  indirect  value. 

The  philosophical  readings  are  mainly  from  Cicero  and 
Plato.  Formerly  an  introductory  course  in  philosophy  was 
given  in  all  Gymnasien ;  the  practice  has  long 

•  u      j  •*  •     •       -j      4.1          Philosophy. 

since  been  abandoned,  except  as  it  is  incidently 
the  outgrowth  of  class  work  with  Cicero  and  Plato.  In 
many  schools  to-day  so  good  a  beginning  is  made  that  philos- 
ophy may  be  said  still  to  have  a  place.  And  just  to  the  ex- 
tent that  attention  is  directed  to  the  thought,  rather  than  to 
the  linguistic  forms,  is  Plato  made  worth  reading.  The  new 
program  will,  I  think,  give  considerable  impetus  to  phil- 
osophic study  ;  at  least,  it  will  serve  to  arouse  an  interest  in 
philosophy  at  the  university. 

It  may  be  presumptuous  to  say  it,  but  the  tendency  in  Ger- 
many to-day  is  away  from  those  methods  which  have  come  to 
be  looked  upon  as  peculiarly  German,  and  to- 
ward what  has  long  been  the  ideal  of  the  best      n1*1?9611* 

0  Tendencies. 

American  schools.  The  movement  for  the  Re- 
formschule  is  essentially  an  attempt  to  preserve  the  classical 
training,  and  at  the  same  time  provide  a  means  of  easy  transi 
tion  from  lower  schools  to  the  classical  school  so  late  as  the 
twelfth  year  of  age.  Stating  it  in  another  way,  it  means  a 
six-year  Latin  course  instead  of  a  nine-year  course.  Again, 
the  reduction  of  time  given  to  classics  has  eliminated  much 
of  the  formal  drill  in  linguistics  which  formerly  characterized 
the  instruction.  The  increased  pressure  put  upon  the  teach- 
ers to  secure  as  good  results  as  before -is  having  the  effect  of 
making  method  more  prominent.  But  the  most  American 
characteristic  of  all  is  the  impetus  given  to  annotated  and 
illustrated  text-books.  The  old  idea  was  that  the  barest  out- 
line should  be  placed  in  the  pupil's  hands — in  language  work, 
merely  the  text-  The  teacher  was  the  source  of  all  inspira- 
tion and  information.  Within  five  years  there  is  a  marked 
tendency  to  give  the  class  text-books  with  introductions,  out- 


GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

lines,  explanations  and  notes.     As  I  write  I  have  before  me 

copies  of  the  (Edipus  Rex  and  the  Antigone,  prepared  by 

Director  Muff  of  Cassel.     These  books  are  each 

Text-Books. 

m  two  small  volumes.  One  contains  an  intro- 
duction treating  of  the  Greek  Tragedy  before  Sophocles,  the 
life  and  work  of  Sophocles,  an  analysis  and  criticism  of  the 
theme  of  the  drama,  explanations  of  the  theatre,  of  the  chorus 
and  the  action  of  the  play.  Then  follows  the  text,  with  a 
short  introduction  to  each  scene.  The  companion  volume 
is  a  commentary  on  the  text.  This  series  of  texts,  which  is 
edited  by  Directors  H.  J.  Miiller,  Berlin,  and  Oscar  Jager, 
Cologne,  and  published  by  Velhagen  and  Klasing,  Leipsic,  is 
one  of  the  latest  and  most  popular  undertakings  in  the  line 
of  school-books.  It  aims  to  supply  texts  for  the  entire  course  ; 
the  names  of  the  editors  are  evidence  that  the  work  will  be 
scholarly ;  the  plan  is  American,  but  bids  fair  to  become 
German  as  well.  But  even  though  the  tendency  in  Germany 
is  to  seek  the  ideal  in  our  direction,  we  have  still  a  long  way 
to  go  before  arriving  at  the  meeting  point. 

Some  criticisms  of  this  paper  which  have  reached  me  since 
it  was  first  published  in  the  School  Review  furnish  an  illus- 
tration of  the  difficulties  one  encounters  in 
attempting  such  a  task.  Mr.  B.  G.  Teubner  of 
Leipsic  is  unwilling  that  I  should  give  others  the  sole  credit  for 
the  new  text-books,  especially  as  he  says  he  was  the  first  to  hit 
upon  the  idea.  On  further  investigation,  I  find  that  Teubner's 
Schiilerausgaben  Griecli.  und  Latein.  Schriftsteller  are  in  the 
same  style  and  are  intended  to  serve  the  same  purpose  as  the 
other  series.  The  matter  of  priority  I  cannot  determine  from 
the  conflicting  evidence.  "It  is  of  small  moment  anyway," 
so  I  am  told  by  a  gymnasial  teacher  whose  judgment  I  much 
respect,  "  inasmuch  as  these  books  are  the  invention  of  the 
devil,  and  are  calculated  to  destroy  all  genuine  interest  in 
classical  study  by  depriving  the  pupil  of  the  pleasure  of  in- 
dependent research."  The  very  fact,  he  declares,  that  there  is 
a  demand  for  such  books  shows  that  a  period  of  decadence  in 
classical  scholarship  has  set  in.  This  is  one  side.  The  other 


INSTRUCTION  IN  GREEK  AND  LATIN  265 

side  is  represented,  fortunately  for  the  sake  of  the  antithesis, 
by  the  school  inspector  who  is  officially  responsible  for  the 
supervision  of  the  work  ef  the  teacher  above  quoted.  The 
inspector,  who  is  well  known  throughout  Germany  for  his 
classical  scholarship  and  professional  skill,  writes  that  I  have 
truthfully  given  the  views  of  the  progressive  teachers  and 
most  loyal  supporters  of  classical  training  in  Germany.  ' '  The 
future  success  of  humanistic  studies,"  he  adds,  "depends 
upon  the  acceptance  of  these  ideals  and  methods."  These 
two  men  represent  what  I  have  called  the  antagonism  between 
the  old  humanism  and  the  new. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — Eckstein,  Lateinischer  und  griechischer  Unter- 
richt,  Leipsic,  1887 ;  Berger,  Stilistische  Voriibungen  der  lateinischen 
Sprache,  Coburg;  Jiiger,  Aus  der  Praxis:  Ein  Padagogisches  Testament^ 
Wiesbaden;  Schiller,  Jfandbuch  der  praktischen  Padagogik,  Leipsic; 
Schrader,  Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichtslehre,  Berlin ;  Baumeister,  Hand- 
buch  der  Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichtslehre ;  Encyclopedias  of  Schmid 
and  Rein;  Rethwisch,  Jahresberichte  iiber  das  hohere  Schulwesen,  Berlin. 


CHAPTEE   XIV 
INSTRUCTION   IN  THE   MODERN  LANGUAGES 

THE  modern  languages  taught  in  the  secondary  schools  of 

Germany  are  French,  English,  Italian  and  Polish.     Of  these, 

French  easily  holds   first   place;    Italian   and 

Mainly  French    p^jg^  are  offered  in  a  few  schools,  and  only 

and  English.  ',  •* 

in  response  to  local  needs.  In  this  sketch, 
therefore,  I  shall  consider  merely  the  teaching  of  French  and 
English. 

Historically  considered,  there  has  been  some  demand  for  a 
knowledge  of  the  French  language  since  the  twelfth  century, 
but  in  early  times  this  need  was  felt  only  by 
*ne  n°bility  and  the  commercial  classes.  For 
the  one,  the  services  of  private  tutors  and  for- 
eign travel  sufficed ;  to  others  the  way  was  pointed  out  through 
the  exigencies  of  trade  and  barter.  The  surpassing  brilliancy 
of  the  French  political  constitution  and  social  order,  the 
superiority  of  French  art,  literature  and  science,  began  to 
dazzle  the  eyes  of  the  German  aristocracy  toward  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  Finally,  with  the  end  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  sentiment  passed  over  into  conviction.  A  knowl- 
edge of  French  was  an  indispensable  part  of  a  gentleman's 
education.  Special  schools  (Ritteralcademien)  were  founded 
for  noblemen's  sons  in  which  the  French  language  and  liter- 
ature had  a  prominent  place.  But  as  yet  French  was  not 
admitted  to  classical  schools  of  the  country  ;  the  function  of 
the  Oymnasien,  it  was  agreed,  was  to  give  instruction  in  the 
humanities,  not  to  provide  for  the  practical  needs  of  any 
class.  In  some  schools,  however,  French  was  offered  as  an 

266 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  MODERN  LANGUAGES     267 

elective  study  even  as  early  as  1700,  and  fifty  years  later  it  was 
not  an  uncommon  thing  to  find  Frenchmen  installed  in  Ger- 
man schools  as  teachers  of  their  mother-tongue.  Local  con- 
siderations, of  course,  induced  this  innovation  ;  but  in  Stras- 
burg,  for  example,  no  instruction  was  given  in  French  as 
late  as  1730,  notwithstanding  the  city  had  been  for  half  a 
century  under  French  control  and  more  French  than  German 
was  spoken  by  the  inhabitants. 

The  growth  of  utilitarian  ideas  in  Germany  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century  which  resulted  in  the  founding  of  Real- 
schools  also  promoted  the  study  of  French.  Encouraged  by 
Under  Frederick  the  Great,  the  first  definite  Frederick  the 
movement  was  made  to  establish  French  in  the 
curriculum  of  the  Prussian  Gymnasien.  The  ministerial 
rescript  advised  a  restricted  use  of  the  grammar,  and  that  the 
main  emphasis  be  placed  upon  the  reading  of  the  literature, 
coupled  with  a  speaking  knowledge  of  the  language.  The 
works  of  Fenelon,  Moliere  and  Voltaire  were  recommended 
as  reading  material.  Whenever  possible,  native  Frenchmen 
should  be  employed  as  instructors  in  the  upper  grades.  That 
French  soon  became  an  important  study  in  some  secondary 
schools  is  evident  from  an  order  of  government  in  1812, 
making  an  essay  in  French  one  of  the  requirements  of  the 
final  examination ;  yet  it  is  equally  patent  that  French  was 
not  universally  taught,  inasmuch  as  substitutions  could  be 
made  for  the  French  essay. 

The  school  program  of  1816  ignored  the  subject  altogether 
— a  politic  expression  of  the  popular  hatred  of  France.  In- 
deed, there  was  excuse  for  the  feeling  that  the 
humbling  of  Germany  in  the  Napoleonic  Wars 
was  the  result  of  too  great  deference  to  French 
ideas.  In  time,  however,  this  spite  exhausted  itself,  and  ii 
1831  French  was  made  an  obligatory  study  in  all  Prussian 
Gymnasien. 

A  circular  rescript  of  1837  assigned  to  French  2  hours 
a  week  during  the  last  six  years  of  the  gymnasial  course. 
The  first  official  program  of  the  Realgymnasium  (1859)  gave 


268  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

to   French  5  hours  a  week  in  Quinta  and  Quarta,  and  4 

hours  a  week   throughout  the   upper  six  classes.     English 

(now  for  the  first  time  made  an  obligatory  sub- 

Lehrplan  of  1837.   v 

.  ject)  was  begun  in  lertia  with  4  hours  a 
week,  and  continued  throughout  the  four  succeeding  years 
3  hours  a  week.  The  revision  of  school  programs  in  1882 
left  the  Gymnasien  with  21  week-hours  of  French  in  an 
eight  years'  course,  and  English  elective.  /  In  the  Oberreal- 
schule  French  was  required  throughout  the  course,  with  a 
total  of  56  week-hours,  and  English  during  the  last  six  years, 
with  a  total  of  26  week-hours.  As  matters  stand  at  present, 
since  the  reforms  of  1892,  19  week-hours  are  given  to  French 
in  the  Gymnasien,  beginning  with  Quarta  ;  31  week-hours  in 
the  Realgymnasien,  beginning  with  Quarta;  and  47  week- 
hours  in  the  Oberrealschule,  beginning  the  first  year  of  the 
course.  English  is  still  elective  in  all  Gymnasien,  but  re- 
quired in  the  last  six  years  in  the  Realgymnasium  and 
Oberrealschtile,  with  18  and  25  week-hours  respectively. 

From  the  very  beginning  of  modern-language  instruction 

in  the  public  schools,  there  has  been  continual  controversy 

•over  the  methods  to  be  employed.     The  private 

Early  Methods.  -i          j  •  i 

tutor  lived  with  his  pupil,  and  in  a  natural  way 
the  latter  acquired  the  language  of  the  former.  Habit*  of 
speech  were  of  major  importance.  In  class  teaching  the  in- 
structor found  himself  overloaded  with  pupils,  and  master  of 
altogether  too  small  a  portion  of  their  time  to  permit  of 
success  by  the  natural  method.  Moreover,  few  teachers  were 
fluent  in  the  use  of  the  foreign  tongue.  Trained  in  the 
Gymnasien  and  universities,  they  were  far  more  familiar  with 
the  classical  than  the  modern  languages.  Their  only  experi- 
ence in  language  teaching  had  been  gained  from  training  in 
Latin  and  Greek.  What  wonder,  then,  that  they  should  seek 
to  teach  French  as  though  it  were  a  substitute  for  Latin  ? 
Ought  not  the  methods  perfected  by  centuries  of  practice 
with  one  language  be  equally  applicable  to  any  other  lan- 
guage ?  Considerable  facility  was  often  acquired  in  writing 
and  speaking  Latin  ;  why  should  not  the  same  effort  be  pro- 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  MODERN  LANGUAGES     269 

ductive  of  even  better  results  with  so  simple  a  language  as 
French  or  English  ? 

The  outcome  of  such  questions  was  the  adoption  by  the 
great  majority  of  teachers  of  the  methods  in  vogue  in  the 
teaching  of  Latin.  This  meant  that  a  good 
vocabulary  of  isolated  words,  paradigms,  rules 
of  syntax  and  prosody,  were  the  essential  con- 
siderations in  the  early  part  of  the  course  ;  and  in  the  upper 
classes  success  was  measured  in  terms  of  translation  and  prose 
composition.  But  the  especial  advantage  claimed  for  this 
kind  of  work  was  not  so  much  the  learning  of  the  language 
as  the  mental  discipline  thereby  gained.  It  was  argued  that 
anyone  could. learn  to  use  a  modern  language,  provided  he 
could  hear  enough  of  it  and  get  sufficient  practice  in  speaking 
it,  and  yet  be  none  the  stronger  from  a  mental  point  of  view. 
In  fact,  the  less  thought  given  to  the  process  involved  the 
better.  Nothing  so  hampers  a  speaker  in  his  use  of  the 
mother-tongue  as  self-consciousness.  The  person  who  is 
most  fluent  in  the  use  of  a  foreign  tongue  is  he  who  has 
lived  from  childhood  in  the  foreign  environment,  and  has 
learned  it  by  the  most  natural  method.  On  the  contrary,  if 
the  pupil  be  taught  to  analyze  the  foreign  language,  to  under- 
stand the  principles  upon  which  it  is  constructed  and  to 
translate  its  thought  into  precise,  idiomatic,  vernacular  terms, 
he  will  thereby  acquire  the  intellectual  .power  necessary  to 
cope  with  the  higher  problems  of  life.  It  means  the  de- 
velopment of  the  faculties  of  observation,  memory  and 
reason. 

In  a  word,  the  modern-language  teachers  of  Germany 
down  to  very  recent  times  have  been  divided  into  two  hostile 
parties — the  one  advocating  the  tutorial,  or  so-called  "nat- 
ural," method,  for  the  sake  of  its  practical  advantages  ;  the 
other  favouring  the  classical  "  translation  "  method,  because 
of  the  implied  mental  discipline. 

With  the  political  and  consequent  social  advancement  of 
Germany  in  the  past  quarter  of  a  century  have  come  many 
important  changes  of  pedagogical  belief ;  and  in  no  field  is 


270  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

this  more  apparent  than  in  that  of  modern  languages.     The 

initial  impulse  was  unquestionably  given  by  the  increasing 

commercial    demands    of    the   empire.     Real- 

Recent  Changes.  .  ,  ,    .      .    *  , 

schools  grew  in  numbers  and  in  influence,  and 
in  this  growth  the  modern  languages  came  in  for  a  large 
share  of  attention.  This  was  partly  due  to  the  belief  that 
they  were  worthy  of  study  along  with  the  great  languages  of 
antiquity,  but  more  especially  was  it  the  outcome  of  a  desire 
to  promote  closer  commercial  intercourse  with  neighbouring 
countries.  As  trade  increased  there  was  greater  demand  for 
young  men  who  could  speak  the  modern  languages.  This 
demand,  however,  could  not  be  supplied  by  the  secondary 
schools.  Their  graduates  knew  only  the  literary  French  and 
English  ;  and  what  with  their  outrageously  bad  pronuncia- 
tion and  almost  total  ignorance  of  the  life  and  customs  of  for- 
eign peoples,  they  were  seriously  hampered  in  their  business 
careers. 

This  condition  of  affairs  was  the  making  of  the  private 
schools  which  depended  for  patronage  on  the  larger  cities. 
The  popularity  of  such  institutions  was  a  stand- 
J[01  ing  criticism  of  the  secondary-school  system,  a 

measure  of  the  practical  worth  of  the  secondary 
school  in  public  opinion.  In  1882  the  Prussian  government, 
yielding  to  this  criticism,  attempted  in  the  school  program  of 
that  year  to  reform  the  modern-language  work.  Not  more 
work  was  called  for,  but  better  work  and  more  practical.  Many 
teachers,  too,  were  becoming  sceptical  of  the  old  order,  and 
were  beginning  to  contrast  the  time  and  energy  expended  in 
instruction  with  the  results  attained.  The  suspicion  that 
something  was  radically  wrong  with  modern-language  teach- 
ing paved  the  way  for  reforms. 

Popular  criticism  was  focussed  by  an  essay  that  appeared 
in  1882,  under  the  pseudonym  of  Quousque  Tandem,  en- 
titled The  Teaching  of  Languages  must  Start 
Afresh.  This  proved  to  be  a  veritable  fire- 
brand. Educators  ranged  themselves  for  or 
against  the  views  presented  by  this  anonymous  writer,  and 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  MODERN  LANQVAGBS     271 

for  several  years  there  was  heated  disco ssion  and  bitter  con- 
troversy. 

The  new  ideas,  in  part  originated  by  Quousque  Tandem, 
who  proved  to  be  none  other  than  Dr.  Wilhelm  Victor,  Pro- 
fessor in  the  Marburg  University,  and  in  part 
the  outcome  of  subsequent  discussion,  were 
formulated  as  follows :  "  First,  foreign  lan- 
guages should,  primarily,  be  taught  by  means  of  connected 
types,  the  grammar  being  kept  in  the  background  ;  second, 
imitation  and  thought  should  be  encouraged,  instead  of  trans- 
lation ;  third,  pronunciation  should  be  taught  upon  the  basis 
of  scientific  phonetics ;  and  fourth,  living  languages  should 
be  learned  before  dead  ones."  The  new  movement  from  its 
inception  was  in  opposition  to  the  long  accepted  "  transla- 
tion "  method.  A  modicum  of  grammar,  connected  discourse 
and  mastery  of  the  language  by  its  use  were  all  notions  con- 
trary to  former  belief. 

Insistence  upon  correct  pronunciation,  and  scientific  meth- 
ods of  teaching  it,  would  of  itself  exclude  many  modern- 
language  teachers  from  the  profession.  This 
proposition  alone  sufficed  to  arouse  relentless 
opposition  to  the  new  school.  But  the  science 
of  phonetics  would  not  down.  Several  new  books  on  the  sub- 
ject met  with  a  warm  reception  from  the  champions  of  the 
new  movement  and  materially  strengthened  their  cause.1 

The  immediate  effect  of  this  unwonted  attention  to  pro- 
nunciation not  only  furnished  a  stimulus  to  the  scientific 
study  of  the  language  as  a  whole,  but  also  led  directly  to  its 
practical  use  in  idiomatic  form.  The  movement  had  from 
the  beginning  the  cordial  support  and  sympathy  of  those 

1  The  most  important  of  these  were  the  following :  Sievers,  Grundzugt 
der  Phonetik,  Leipsic,  1876  (2d  edition,  1886) ;  Sweet,  Handbook  of 
Phonetics,  London,  1877;  Trautmann,  Die  Sprachlaute  im  allgemeinen 
und  d.  Engl.,  Franzds  u.  Deutsch.,  Leipsic,  1884 ;  Victor,  Elemente  der 
Phonetik  und  Orthoepie  d.  Deutsch.,  Engl.  und  Franzos.,  Heilbronn  (3d 
edition,  1887) ;  Schroer,  Uber  den  Unterricht  in  der  Aussprache  des  Eng- 
liscfon,  Berlin,  1884. 


272  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

who  were  looking  for  practical  results  from  instruction  in 
the  schools.     Some  of  the  younger  modern-language  teachers 

began  practical  tests  of  the  reform  theories,  and 
controversy      published  the  results  of  their  experiments.    Had 

it  not  been  for  the  indefatigable  labours  of 
Klinghardt,  Kiihn,  Quiehl  and  Walter,  it  is  doubtful  if 
Victor's  ideals  would  ever  have  become  realized.  His  own 
attempts  at  class  instruction  in  Marburg  were  disappointing  ; 
teachers  of  exceptional  ability  and  good  judgment,  more 
interested  in  the  progress  of  their  pupils  than  in  proving  the 
truth  of  every  letter  in  the  theory,  were  needed  to  put  the 
new  movement  on  a  working  basis.  Contributions  to  the 
practical  solution  of  the  problem  began  to  flow  in,  and  ere 
long  the  reformers  were  in  a  position  to  support  their  claims 
in  a  most  convincing  way.  In  the  meantime  opposition  from 
the  university  professors  and  gymnasial  teachers  was  becom- 
ing increasingly  vehement  and  acrimonious.  The  breach 
was  still  further  enlarged  by  the  formation,  in  1886,  of  a 
Modern  Language  Association,  distinct  and  separate  from 
the  modern-language  section  of  the  general  Philological 
Congress.  Membership  in  the  new  organization  rapidly  grew, 
and  sentiment  was  constantly  tending  in  the  direction  of  the 
"  new  school."  The  climax  was  reached  in  the  fifth  meeting 
of  the  Association,  held  in  Berlin  in  1892,  when  Dr.  Waet- 
zoldt,  well  known  to  many  Americans  as  the  affable  director 
of  the  German  educational  exhibit  at  the  Chicago  Columbian 
Exposition,  took  the  meeting  by  storm  in  charging  the  uni- 
versities with  perpetuating  antiquated  methods,  and  by  advo- 
cating the  need  of  reform  in  high  places  in  the  teaching  of 
modern  languages.  In  the  vote  which  followed,  the  mind  of 
the  meeting  was  expressed  in  no  uncertain  way.  Feeling  ran 
so  high  that  the  minority,  made  up  for  the  most  part  of  uni- 
versity professors  and  gymnasial  teachers,  felt  constrained  to 
withdraw,  thus  leaving  a  free  field  to  the  reformers. 

It  amounts  to  saying  that  at  present  there  are  two  associ- 
ations of  language  teachers  in  Germany  :  one  of  teachers 
of  the  modern  languages,  according  to  the  new  methods ; 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  MODERN  LANGUAGES     273 

the  other  of  teachers  of  the  classical  languages,  including 
such  modern-language  teachers  as  cannot  affiliate  with  the 
new  school.  The  line  is  definitely  drawn  be- 

Two  jptirticp 

tween  adherents  of  the  "  translation  "  method 

and  those  who  advocate  the  new,  or  "  direct,"  method. 

At  about  the  time  the  Modern  Language  Association  sepa- 
rated from  the  general  Philological  Congress,  Dr.  Paul  Passy 
was  effecting  an  international  organization,  with 
head-quarters    in    Paris,    for    promoting    the    ^£0^  Party 
teaching  of  modern  languages  according  to  the 
phonetic   system.      German   teachers  of  the  reform  school 
eagerly  welcomed  the  proffered  assistance  from  France.     A 
triad   of  scientific   leaders  was  thus   recognised  :  Sweet,  in 
English  phonetics  ;  Victor,  in  German  ;  and  Passy,  in  French. 
The  organ  of  the  French  society,  Le  Maitre  Phonetigue,  has 
tendered  invaluable  assistance  to  the  promoters  of  the  reform 
movement  in  Germany,  both  in   promoting  the   science  of 
phonetics  and  assisting  in  reducing  it  to  a  practical  basis. 

Thus  it  appears  that  there  are  now  two  principal  schools  of 
language  teachers  in  Germany,  diametrically  opposed  in  doc- 
trine.    The  representatives  of  the  old  school     G    nagialM 
are  firmly  intrenched   in  the  Gymnasien   and      Real-school 
universities,  where  scholastic  ideas  largely  pre- 
dominate, and  classical  training,  with  a  view  to  mental  dis- 
cipline, receives  the  first  consideration.     The  reformers  count 
among  their  numbers  a  few  of  the  younger  university  profes- 
sors and  Privat-Docenten  and  the  majority  of  instructors  in 
the  Peal-schools  and  Hohere  Tocliterschulen.     A  sketch  of 
the  gymnasial  course,  therefore,  will  represent  the  ideals  of 
the  one  party  ;  the  work  of  a  typical  Peal-school  will  embody 
the  views  of  the  other. 

In  the  Gymnasien  the  study  of  French  is  begun  in  Quarta, 
with  four  hours  a  week.  There  is  some  practice  in  pronun- 
ciation, but  at  first  the  main  effort  is  directed  to  learning  the 
grammar  and  the  manipulation  of  sentences  based  on  a  set 
vocabulary.  Later  comes  translation  of  connected  discourse 
and  the  writing  of  themes  in  French.  The  all-but-universal 

18 


274  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

text-book  is  by  Ploetz  and  Kares.     The  literature  read  in  the 
Thomas  Gymnasium  of  Leipsic  is,  I   think,  fairly  typical 

of   the  best  classical  schools.     The  books  are 
The(^^sasial    changed  from  year  to   year,  but  the  average 

amount  of  work  does  not  vary.  The  first 
connected  reading  is  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  course,  from 
Thier's  Expedition  de  Napoleon  en  Egypte.  The  following 
year  Moliere's  I'Avare  is  introduced,  and  in  the  last  two 
years  four  books  are  read  :  Thierry's  Ouillaume  le  Conquer- 
ant,  Racine's  Britannicus,  Moliere's  les  Femmes  Savantes  and 
Taine's  les  Origines  de  la  France  contemporaine.  English  is 
offered  in  the  Gymnasien  as  an  elective  for  two  hours  a  week 
in  the  three  upper  classes.  The  method  of  teaching  corre- 
sponds closely  to  the  work  in  French.  The  course  as  a  whole, 
even  at  its  best,  does  little  more  for  the  pupil  than  give  the 
ability  to  translate  literary  English  with  the  help  of  a  dic- 
tionary. In  general,  there  is  good  reason  why  gymnasial 
students  have  no  knowledge  of  the  spoken  language  and  no 
acquaintance  with  English  lands  and  English  customs  :  the 
average  gymnasial  teacher  never  goes  beyond  the  borders  of 
the  fatherland. 

The  best  that  can  be  said  for  the  modern-language  teaching 
in  the  Gymnasien  is  that  it  is  neither  better  nor  worse 

than  the  corresponding  work  in  American  high 

Results.  .     J  6. 

schools.  It  is  an  open  question  which  party  is 
most  complimented  by  the  comparison.  Notable  variations 
are  to  be  found  among  German  gymnasial  teachers,  but  I  be' 
lieve  that  every  divergence  from  the  norm  can  be  matched 
from  the  list  of  American  teachers.  The  aim  and  methods 
of  both  are  essentially  the  same.  Even  our  most  popular 
American  text-books  might  well  be  considered  translations 
of  manuals  used  in  the  German  Gymnasien. 

Modern-language  instruction  in  the  Real-schools  is  quite 
another  thing.  Here  is  life  and  vigour  and  ability — and,  of 
course,  most  excellent  results.  The  province  of  Hesse-Nassau 
seems  to  be  a  luminous  centre  ;  but  superior  teaching  can  be 
found  in  Berlin,  Altona,  Leipsic,  Carlsruhe,  Munich,  and 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  MODERN  LANGUAGES     275 

also,  I  have  no  doubt,  in  many  other  cities  which  I  was 
unable  to  visit.  The  course  of  study  in  French  and  English 
in  one  of  these  schools  gives  a  very  imperfect 

.,  •       i     .   •      j  i_    j.  .e  i         .e  The  Real-School 

idea  of  what  is  done  ;  but  for  sake  of  compar-        course, 
ison  I  give  herewith  an  outline  of  the  work  in 
1892-1893  in  these  languages  in  the  Realschule  in  Bocken- 
heim,  a  suburb  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 

SEXTA. 

French,  6  hours  weekly,  (a)  Oral  exercises  :  Exercises  for 
ear  and  tongue  ;  phonetic  charts  and  phonetic  spelling  are 
used  exclusively  during  the  first  months  ;  spe- 
cial stress  laid  upon  clear  and  correct  pronunci- 
ation. In  the  second  quarter,  beginning  of  orthography. 
Learning  by  heart  and  singing  of  easy  poems.  Thorough 
explanation  of  the  reading  material ;  home  and  school  life 
are  subjects  for  conversation,  in  connection  with  Holzel's 
Pictures  (Anschauungsbilder).  The  most  important  gram- 
matical laws  (numerals,  possessive  and  personal  pronouns, 
plural  of  substantives,  feminine  forms  of  adjectives,  declen- 
sion of  nouns,  ce  qui,  de  qui,  a  qui,  que  avoir,  etre — indic- 
ative, indicative  of  -er  conjugation,  agreement  of  subject  and 
predicate  with  etre)  were  taught  inductively  from  the  ma- 
terial used  in  conversation  and  reading,  and  fixed  by  inde- 
pendent exercises,  (b)  Written  exercises  :  Beginning  with 
the  second  quarter,  weekly  exercise  in  class — dictation,  writ- 
ing from  memory,  arithmetical  problems,  answers  to  ques- 
tions in  French  and  simple  descriptions.  Grammatical 
exercises  :  Text-book,  Franzosisches  Lesebuch  by  Kiihn. 
(The  following  poems  from  the  reader  were  committed  to 
memory  :  Nos.  1,  3,  8  (a),  8  (b-c),  9, 12,  28,  29,  33,  44,  48,  55. 
The  selections  for  reading  were  as  follows  :  Part  I.,  Nos.  15, 
17,  18,  21,  49,  50,  51,  85  ;  and  from  the  small  reader,  Nos. 
21,  25,  32,  36,  40,  41,  42,  52,  60  (c),  62  (a-b).) 

QUINTA. 

French,  6  hours,  (a)  Oral  :  Readings  from  Kuhn's  Lese- 
buch, in  connection  with  practice  in  hearing  and  speaking. 
Conversational  exercises  on  affairs  of  daily  life,  the  weather, 
seasons,  geography  and  history.  Memorizing  from  prose  and 
poetry  and  practice  in  singing.  Grammatical  exercises  ac- 
cording to  Ploetz's  Elementarbuch,  in  connection  with  read- 


276  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ings,  pictures  and  conversation.  The  reading  material  of 
Sexto,  was  extended.  One  dialogue  was  learned,  (b)  Written  : 
Daily  exercises  in  class.  One  theme  each  week.  Further 
practice  in  writing  from  dictation,  answering  questions,  gram- 
matical exercises  and  letter-writing. 

QUARTA. 

French,  0  hours,  (a)  Oral  :  Kepetition  of  conversational 
material  of  VI.  and  V.  The  study  of  a  large  number  of 
poems  and  selections  from  Kiihn's  Lesebuch  (I.  Contes,  II. 
Histoire,  III.  Lemons  de  Choses).  Conversational  exercises 
in  closest  connection  with  this  material,  and,  further,  in  con- 
nection with  life  of  the  pupils  at  home  and  in  school,  in 
city  and  country  (HolzePs  Pictures).  Practice  in  repetition 
of  simple  stories  and  descriptions  of  historical  and  geograph- 
ical facts.  Irregular  verbs  were  studied  systematically,  as 
met  with  in  reading  or  needed  in  conversation,  (b)  Written  : 
Class  exercise  weekly — dictation,  answering  of  questions, 
simple  descriptions,  free  reproductions  of  stories  told  in  class. 
Grammatical  exercises  with  regular  and  irregular  verbs,  in 
connection  with  reading  and  conversation. 

TEBTIA. 

French,  6  hours.  Three  stories  were  read  from  Souvestre, 
Au  Coin  du  Feu  and  Les  Clairieres.  Conversation  on  the 
contents  of  the  readings,  and  practice  in  speaking  in  connec- 
tion with  HolzeFs  Pictures  and  the  daily  experiences  of  the 
pupils.  Repetition  of  previously  learned  poems  and  songs. 
Memorizing  of  new  poems.  Grammar  :  Review  of  the  irregu- 
lar verbs  and  syntax  of  substantives,  adjectives,  adverbs, 
numerals  and  prepositions ;  use  of  modes  and  tenses.  Two 
written  exercises  in  class  each  month — conversations,  descrip- 
tions, dictations,  translations.  Text-books  :  Ploetz's  Schul- 
grammatik  der  franzosischen  Sprnche. 

English,  5  hours,  (a)  Oral  :  Phonetic  exercises  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Lauttafel  and  Lautschrift.  In  second  quarter, 
beginning  of  orthography.  Memorizing  of  poems,  some  of 
which  were  sung.  The  study  of  selections  through  question 
and  answer.  Further  exercise  in  speaking  concerning  the 
surroundings  and  life  of  pupils  at  home  and  in  school  (Hol- 
zel's  Pictures  of  the  Seasons).  Simple  grammatical  exer- 
cises ;  the  most  important  rules  of  syntax  were  learned  in- 
ductively, and  fixed  by  practice  in  the  foreign  tongue,  (b) 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  MODERN  LANGUAGES     277 

Written  :  After  the  first  quarter,  one  class  exercise  each  week 
—writing  from  memory,  simple  description,  answering  of 
questions  put  in  English,  dictation  and  grammatical  exercises. 
Text-books:  Gesenius,  Elementarbuch  der  Engl.  Svrache ; 
Vietor  and  Dorr,  Engl.  Lesebuch. 

SECUNDA. 

French,  6  hours,  (a)  Readings  :  Guizot,  Recits  historiques, 
I.;  Souvestre,  Au  Coin  du  Feu  (five  stories).  Several  songs 
were  learned  and  sung ;  former  ones  reviewed.  Free  oral 
and  written  exercises,  in  connection  with  the  readings  and 
Holzel's  Pictures.  A  written  exercise  bi-weekly,  (b)  Gram- 
mar :  The  most  important  rules  on  order,  modes  and  tenses, 
articles  and  adjectives,  in  connection  with  Ploetz's  Schulgram- 
matik,  Lekt.  39-68. 

English,  4  hours.  Stories,  poems  and  songs  from  Vietor 
and  Dorr's  Englisches  Lesebuch.  Memorizing  of  poems  and 
songs  and  practice  in  singing.  Exercise  in  speaking  about 
reading  materials,  pictures  and  the  pupils'  surroundings. 
Review  of  poems.  A  written  exercise  bi-weekly.  Systematic 
study  of  grammar,  in  connection  with  Gesenius'  Text-Book, 
chaps.  1-22. 

PRIMA. 

French,  5  hours.  Readings  :  Tartarin  de  Tarascon,  by 
Daudet ;  L'Avare,  by  Moliere.  Free  oral  and  written  exer- 
cises, in  connection  with  the  literature  and  object-lessons  ; 
transposition  and  repetition  of  stories  read  or  recounted  in 
class  ;  exercises  in  dictation,  condensation  and  translation. 
Class  essays  and  letter-writing.  One  written  exercise  bi- 
weekly. Drill  in  grammatical  forms. 

English,  4  hours.  Reading  :  Jackanapes,  by  Mrs.  Ewing  ; 
Sketches,  by  Dickens.  A  few  poems  learned  and  sung.  Con- 
stant practice  in  speaking  and  writing,  in  connection  with  the 
reading  material,  the  daily  life  of  the  pupils  in  home  and 
school  and  Holzel's  Pictures.  Practice  in  rapid  reproduc- 
tion of  passages  of  read  or  spoken  English  and  in  letter-writ- 
ing. Writing  of  English  essays  ;  dictation  and  translation. 
A  written  exercise  bi-weekly.  Systematic  study  of  grammar, 
according  to  Pe try's  Die  wichtigsten  Kapitel  der  englischen 
Syntax. 

Nothing  that  I  can  add  to  this  outline  will  show  more 
clearly  the  scope  and  contents  of  the  courses  in  modern  Ian- 


278  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

guages.  In  this  respect  the  schools  themselves  have  no 
choice ;  the  course  is  prescribed  by  the  government.  But 
there  is  much  to  be  said  concerning  the  ways  and  means  of 
reaching  the  ends  that  are  officially  prescribed. 

Dr.  Quiehl  of  Cassel  is  one  of  the  most  successful  teachers 

of  modern  languages  in  Germany.     In  the  spring  of  1894 

I  had  the  pleasure  of  spending  several  days  in 

Methods™1     his  school  (the  Neue  Realschule),  where  I  was 

given  every  opportunity  to  observe  his  methods. 

Inasmuch  as  the  first  lessons  present  the  greatest  difficulties 

and  show  the  widest  divergence  from  the  gymnasial  type,  I 

will  give  here  a  transcription  of  my  notes  on  an  exercise  with 

a  class  of  forty  boys  who  had  been    studying  English  one 

week. 

A  phonetic  chart  (Lauttafel,  by  Victor)  hangs  on  the  wall 
before  the  class ;  it  gives  a  schematic  arrangement  of  all 
the  vowel  and  consonant  sounds  in  English, 
French  and  German.  The  class  has  already 
made  its  acquaintance,  and  knows  the  value  of 
most  of  the  characters.  The  teacher's  first  words  are  :  "  We 
will  take  the  sounds  to  -  day.  What  is  the  first  sound  in 
'  sounds '  ?"  A  boy  is  directed  to  point  out  the  s  on  the 
chart ;  the  boy  repeats  it,  and  the  class  gives  it  in  concert. 
This  process  is  continued  with  the  remaining  sounds  of  the 
word.  It  presents  great  difficulty  to  most  of  the  pupils,  and 
much  drill  is  needed  to  make  it  clear.  Other  vocables  pre- 
viously studied  are  reviewed  with  the  samd  precision  ;  each 
sound  is  pointed  out  on  the  chart,  and  practised  singly  and  in 
combination.  The  boys  are  already  quite  familiar  with  the 
chart";  they  run  it  over  rapidly  and  skip  about,  following  the 
master's  pointer,  very  much  as  would  be  done  in  learning 
the  musical  scale.  Next  comes  the  use  of  numerals.  They 
count  (with  the  master's  assistance)  up  to  fifty.  Special  at-  • 
tention  is  given  to  pronunciation  ;  each  new  difficulty  is  re- 
ferred to  the  chart,  and  rapid  drill  follows  individually  and 
in  chorus.  The  teacher,  I  notice,  does  not  attempt  to  con- 
fine himself  to  English ;  his  chief  object  is  to  make  these 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  MODERN  LANGUAGES     279 

boys  produce  the  right  sounds  and  understand  what  is  want- 
ed. If  German  is  necessary,  they  get  it.  The  advantage  in 
the  use  of  numerals  is  that  they  already  know  the  symbols  ; 
the  figures  can  be  written  on  the  board  as  the  words  are  pro- 
nounced without  distracting  the  attention  from  the  sounds. 
Particular  stress  is  put  on  the  correct  English  idiom.  Over 
and  over  again  come  such  expressions  as  the  following : 
"  Give  me  the  stick  [pointer]."  "I  have  the  stick."  "He 
has  the  stick."  "Can  you  count?"  "Yes,  lean  count." 
The  teacher  writes  123,  1,456,  2,789  on  the  board,  and  asks 
a  boy  to  read  them.  Others  try  it.  Then  comes  practice  in 
addition.  Such  examples  as  "8  +  1  =  ?"  and  "9  +  5  + 
12  =  ? "  are  written  on  the  board,  read  and  solved.  Boys 
set  similar  tasks  for  each  other,  and  stir  up  a  good  deal  of  ri- 
valry. The  advance  for  the  day  now  begins.  A  boy  goes  to 
the  board  and  writes  a  number  of  six  places.  As  he  writes 
he  names  the  figures  ;  the  class  watches  critically.  "  Is  that 
right  ?  "  "  Is  that  the  right  figure  ?  "  "Is  that  the  right 
sound  ?  "  "  Point  it  out  on  the  chart " — such  questions  are 
being  rapidly  put  at  each  step  (with  the  help  of  German,  if 
necessary)  and  as  rapidly  answered  by  simply  changing  the 
order  and  making  necessary  insertions.  "  Yes,  that  is  right," 
or  "No,  that  is  not  right."  Other  boys  try  their  hands — 
and  voices.  This  leads  up  easily  to  a  series  of  sentences,  with 
appropriate  actions,  like  the  following  :  "  Take  your  seat — 
crayon — book — pencil."  Boy  :  "  I  take  my  seat,  crayon," 
etc.  Class:  "  He  takes  his  seat,"  etc.  Teacher:  "  Put  your 
book  on  (under,  into)  your  desk  (chair,  table)."  Boy :  "  I  put 
my  book  on  (under,  into)  my  desk  (chair,  table)."  Class  :  "He 
puts  his  book  on  (etc.)  his  desk  (etc.)."  Other  sentences 
used  in  the  same  way  are  :  "  Open  your  book  (books) ; " 
"  Shut  your  book  ;  "  "  Open  the  door  ;  "  "  Shut  the  door  ; " 
"  Enter  the  room  ;  "  "  Go  to  your  seat ; "  "  Take  your  pen- 
holder;" "Write  on  your  paper;"  "  Put  down  your  pen- 
holder." All  possible  variations  in  the  present  tense  are 
tried  again  and  again.  The  equivalent  German  expression 
is  called  for  whenever  a  boy  seems  not  to  understand  or  be- 


280  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

comes  confused.  Next,  plural  forms  are  used.  Two  boys 
do  as  directed,  and  accompany  their  actions  with  appropriate 
responses.  The  class  addresses  the  actors  in  the  second  per- 
son, and  repeats  it  to  the  master  in  the  third.  This  occupies 
several  minutes,  and  is  enthusiastically  entered  into  by  all. 
Everybody  wants  to  'take  part,  and  few  if  any  of  the  forty 
fail  of  an  opportunity.  Eight  verbs  are  designated  for  prac- 
tice at  home,  in  preparation  for  the  next  recitation.  "  Shut 
your  books" — "Put  your  books  away  "— "  Stand  up" — 
"Take  the  sponge" — "Wipe  out  the  words  on  the  black- 
board "— "  Open  the  window  "—"  Open  the  door  "—"  March." 
Time  :  fifty  minutes. 

The  chief  end  of  the  lesson  was  to  afford  practice  in  using 
English  sounds,  particularly  those  not  found  in  the  Hessian 
dialect.  Not  a  slip  in  the  whole  hour  but  was 
corrected  by  the  master,  and  during  the  review 
the  chart  was  in  constant  use.  Yet  incidentally  a  surprising 
amount  of  English  was  learned :  idiomatic  expressions  in- 
volving some  twenty  new  words  ;  the  use  of  four  or  five  prep- 
ositions ;  the  present  indicative  plural  of  eight  or  ten  verbs  ; 
several  pronouns,  together  with  constant  drill  in  the  gram- 
matical forms  previously  given.  Not  a  letter  had  been  writ- 
ten ;  probably  no  member  of  the  class  could  have  recognised 
a  single  word  of  all  those  he  used  so  glibly,  even  if  he  had 
seen  it  in  print.  I  need  not  say  that  the  teacher  was  a  mas- 
ter of  his  art ;  he  knew  English,  and  he  knew  how  to  teach 
it.  And  this  kind  of  lesson,  as  I  repeatedly  observed,  was 
an  every-day  occurrence.  His  scholars  in  the  upper  classes 
were  reading  and  speaking  French  and  English  with  ease. 
They  had  unbounded  confidence  in  their  ability  to  use  what 
they  knew,  and,  for  school-boys,  they  knew  a  deal. 

A  lesson  which  I  attended  in  the  Bockenheim  Realscliule 
gave  me  some  idea  of  the  results  of  this  method  in  the  upper 
classes.  The  school  had  been  for  some  time  under  the  di- 
rectorship of  Professor  Walter,  who  shortly  before  my  visit 
had  been  transferred  to  the  Muster scliule,  a  Realgymnasium, 
in  Frankfort.  Professor  Walter's  reputation  as  a  master  of 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  MODERN  LANGUAGES     281 

modern  languages  had  been  presented  to  me  in  such  eulogistic 
terms  that  I  was  very  desirous  of  learning  something  of  his 
methods,  but  I  was  totally  unprepared  for  the 
surprise  that  awaited  me.  Here  was  a  class  of 
thirty  boys,  about  fourteen  years  of  age,  who  had 
been  studying  English  two  years.  They  were  just  taking  up 
Jackanapes,  by  Mrs.  Ewing,  having  had  perhaps  ten  lessons 
in  the  book.  At  the  beginning  of  the  lesson  the  boys  were 
called  upon  to  give  a  resume  of  that  part  of  the  story  which 
they  had  already  read.  The  master  then  read  a  selection  in 
advance ;  the  class  followed  him  with  open  books.  One  of 
the  pupils  then  read  the  same  passage,  with  scarcely  a  mispro- 
nunciation or  false  inflection.  The  grammatical  construction 
was  critically  discussed,  difficult  words  picked  up  and  new 
ones  pointed  out,  and  the  precise  meaning  of  the  author 
carefully  analyzed — all  in  precise  and  idiomatic  English. 
Other  passages  were  treated  in  the  same  manner,  but  during 
the  first  two-thirds  of  the  hour  no  attempt  was  made  to  give 
a  literal  translation.  The  story  itself  was  the  all-important 
thing ;  and,  to  make  this  more  certain,  variations  in  the  text 
and  in  the  syntactical  construction  were  freely  introduced, 
and  as  freely  explained  by  the  pupils — all  in  English.  There 
could  be  no  doubt  of  the  complete  mastery  of  the  lesson  by 
every  member  of  the  class.  There  was  constant  drill  in 
speaking,  in  grammar  and  in  composition.  To  make  sure 
that  nothing  was  being  lost,  the  last  few  minutes  of  the  hour 
were  given  up  to  idiomatic  translation  into  German  of  the 
more  difficult  parts  of  the  text,  and  to  free  reproduction  in 
English  of  the  story  as  contained  in  the  day's  lesson. 

It  was  all  so  skilfully  done,  and  such  perfect  English  used 
throughout  (I  was  deceived  into  thinking  the  teacher  an 
Englishman,  but  I  afterward  learned  that  his 

,  Results. 

fluent  speech  and  perfect  cockney  accent  were 
the  result  of  laborious  study  of  Sweet's  Handbook  and  the 
patient  instruction  of  an  English  wife),  that  I  was  inclined  to 
set  it  down  as  a  "  show  "  lesson  for  my  especial  benefit.     The 
fact  was,  however,  as  I  afterward  convinced  myself,  that  not 


282  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

a  boy  in  the  class  had  had  any  chance  whatever  to  make 
special  preparation  for  it.  The  reading  of  these  boys  from 
start  to  finish  was  at  sight.  And  I  could  well  believe  it  pos- 
sible from  my  experience  with  them  after  the  hour  was  over. 
The  master  asked  me  to  speak  to  them  in  English.  I  com- 
plied with  some  trepidation,  lest  I  should  be  the  means  of 
marring  an  otherwise  perfect  exhibition.  Imagine  my  surprise, 
therefore,  when,  at  the  teacher's  suggestion,  six  of  these  boys 
in  turn  reproduced  in  their  own  words  and  in  almost  fault- 
less English  the  gist  of  all  I  had  told  them.  They  were  per- 
fectly at  home  in  English,  so  far  as  their  studies  had  led 
them,  and  had  no  fear  of  conversation  if  restricted  to  their 
own  vocabulary.  And  all  this  the  result  of  two  years  of  class 
instruction  in  English  four  hours  a  week  ! 

After  this  experience  in  the  Bockenheim  school,  I  was 
the  better  prepared  to  appreciate  Director  Walter's  work 

in  Frankfort.     The  first  lesson  which  I  heard 
FrofesBorVaiter  him  give  was  to  a  class  of  thirty-seven  boys  in 

Sexta.  They  were  just  beginning  French,  and 
the  lesson  turned  on  the  pronunciation  of  sounds  which  had 
no  equivalent  in  their  speech.  The  s  in  maison  and  son  gave 
them  much  trouble.  The  chart  was  at  hand,  but  it  could  not 
tell  them  how  to  pronounce  what  they  could  not  hear.  But 
a  beginning  was  made  by  imitating  the  buzzing  of  bees  and 
escaping  steam  ;  and  when  everything  else  failed  the  boys 
were  requested  to  feel  the  teacher's  throat  and  nose,  even  look 
into  his  mouth  to  see  the  position  of  the  tongue,  while  he 
gave  the  sounds.  After  patient  drill  some  progress  was  evi- 
dent, but  it  was  slow  work.  Everything  was  sacrificed  to 
this  one  aim  of  clear  and  correct  vocalization.  It  was  a  fine 
illustration  of  the  theory  underlying  the  phonetic  method 
that  everything  starts  with  the  sound  ;  once  right,  always 
right ;  it  is  easier  to  teach  the  correct  pronunciation  than 
to  correct  a  pronunciation  that  is  bad. 

And  yet  the  lesson  was  not  all  phonetic  drill.  Words  des' 
ignating  objects  in  the  class-room  were  being  used  as  illus- 
trative material ;  a  few  common  substantives,  pronouns  and 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  MODERN  LANGUAGES     283 

verbs  came  in  incidentally,  and  were  put  at  once  into  use. 
Books,  desks,  windows  and  doors  were  opened  and  closed. 
The  adjectives  red,  brown  and  black  were  freely 
used,  to  show  their  order  in  the  sentence.  The 
exercise  shifted  rapidly  from  individual  at- 
tempts to  concert  recitation,  and  back  again  to  action.  Diffi- 
cult words  were  analyzed,  the  sounds  referred  to  in  the  chart, 
new  combinations  presented,  and  finally  everything  gathered 
np  in  a  bit  of  verse  which  appealed  to  the  children's  fancy. 
Two  little  songs  had  been  already  learned,  the  words  and 
music  of  each  being  the  work  of  Director  Walter  ;  and  thus 
many  difficulties  in  vocalization  disappeared  in  the  musical 
tones.  By  drill  in  the  production  of  single  sounds  and  of 
sounds  in  combination,  by  individual  practice  and  concert 
recitation,  by  intonation  and  chorus  singing,  these  small  boys 
were  being  introduced  to  the  mysteries  of  spoken  French. 
It  was  a  purely  formal  exercise.  I  can  imagine  that  the  same 
work  in  the  hands  of  a  less  skilful  teacher  might  become 
an  intolerable  bore,  but  not  so  in  this  case.  There  was  the 
greatest  enthusiasm  throughout  the  hour  ;  and  if  at  any  time 
the  attention  was  inclined  to  flag,  the  signal  for  a  song  would 
quickly  revive  it.  But,  on  the  whole,  I  agree  with  the  verdict 
of  an  able  American  teacher  of  modern  languages,  whom  I 
had  advised  to  visit  the  Frankfort  schools  :  "  Director  Wal- 
ter's teaching  is  marvellous;  but  he  would  succeed  with  any 
method,  or  with  none."  Nevertheless,  he  protests  that  the 
"  direct  "  method  is  everything  to  him. 

"  Erst  der  Laid,  dann  der  Schrift  !  "    It  is  a  first  princi- 
ple of  a  direct  method  that  the  sound  should  precede  the 
symbol,  and  that  the  sound  should  be  learned     pr^pies  of 
by  imitation    of  the    teacher.     The    peculiar      the  Direct 
sounds  incident  to  most  dialects  are  quickly 
picked  up  by  children  long  before  they  come  to  school.     No 
one  will  pretend  to  say  that  there  is  any  reflective  thought 
involved  ;  it  is  imitation  pure  and  simple.     The  child  of 
foreign    parentage,   other    things    being    equal,   learns  the 
French  sounds  as  readily  as  native  children.     Yet  this  natu- 


284  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ral  process  is  impossible  in  school  work.  Imitation  alone 
will  not  suffice,  as  many  teachers  have  erroneously  believed, 
because  the  linguistic  environment  is  opposed  to  the  intro- 
duction of  sounds  foreign  to  the  mother-tongue.  The  learn- 
ing of  foreign  sounds,  therefore,  must  at  first  be  a  conscious 
process.  Ordinarily,  a  child  can  imitate  anything  he  can 
hear ;  and  so  long  as  he  cannot  hear  the  vocalized  s  or  the 
French  u,  to  say  nothing  of  nasals,  there  is  little  probability 
of  his  giving  the  right  vocalization,  no  matter  how  faithfully 
he  tries.  For  this  reason  the  science  of  phonetics  must  be 
applied  to  the  work  of  the  class-room.  The  child  can  some- 
times feel  the  difference  between  the  "  hisses  " 

Phonetic  Drill.  i-  t_  i_        ,      •         t«     i         j 

and  "buzzes  in  English  by  placing  his  hands 
on  the  throat  or  covering  his  ears  when  by  no  means  could 
he  hear  them.  The  application  of  phonetics,  a  physical 
science,  to  the  production  of  sounds  is  possible  just  because 
voice  culture  is  a  physical  process. 

Furthermore,  the  number  of  sounds  in  French  or  English 
is  limited,  and  the  few  not  found  in  the  mother-tongue  can 
be  learned  in  the  first  two  or  three  lessons.  In  another  les- 
son or  two  the  pupil  can  be  made  so  familiar  with  the 
phonetic  chart  that  the  gamut  of  sounds  can  be  run  over  as 
easily  as  the  notes  of  the  musical  scale.  It  is  only  by  such 
training,  founded  on  the  science  of  phonetics  and  aided  by 
exact  phonetic  symbols,  that  a  correct  pronunciation  can  be 
acquired. 

The  process  at  first  may  be  a  matter  of  knowledge,  but  un- 
less it  becomes  a  habit  the  knowledge  may  soon  be  lost.  The 

next  step,  therefore,  is  to  take  up  combinations 
Pronunciation    °^  8Oim(ls  *°  which  the  child  can  attach  some 

meaning,  preferably  short  sentences  which  by 
frequent  repetition  become  well-fixed  in  the  memory  as  in- 
dicative of  certain  ideas.  Longer  sentences,  or  several  of  them, 
may  be  easily  learned,  if  there  be  some  rhythm  in  them  which 
tends  to  fix  the  habit.  Hence,  short  poems  are  memorized 
almost  from  the  beginning  of  the  course.  I  have  already  re- 
ferred to  the  excellent  use  made  of  music  by  Director  Walter, 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  MODERN  LANGUAGES     285 

not  only  as  a  means  of  acquiring  vocabulary  and  its  proper 
pronunciation,  but  also  as  delightful  recreation  in  the  midst  of 
hard  work.  The  little  poem  beginning  "  Cherche,  cherche, 
papillion ;  Tu  es  bien  loin  da  ta  maison ! " 1  and  the  songs 
" Le  bon  camarade"  and  "Ma  Normandie,"  are  the  first  to 
be  memorized — selected  perhaps  as  much  for  their  stock  of 
nasal  vowels  as  for  their  simplicity. 

A  song  or  poem  learned,  the  next  step  is  to  refer  every 
sound  to  its  appropriate  symbol.  It  is  written  out  verse  by 
verse  in  the  phonetic  characters,  and  copied  into 

..     *  .    ,  Phonetic  Script. 

the  pupils  note-books  for  practice  at  home. 
The  phonetic  is  the  only  written  form  that  the  pupils  see 
for  months.  At  first  the  work  is  altogether  oral ;  later,  for 
the  sake  of  precision,  the  phonetic  script  is  introduced ;  and, 
finally,  short  pieces  written  in  the  phonetic  characters  are 
used  for  reading  exercises  in  class.  Walter  and  Quiehl  re- 
commend that  the  phonetic  script  be  used  exclusively  for 
four  months,  at  least,  in  French,  and  one  month  in  English. 
It  is  said  that  Passy  has  used  it  successfully  in  the  Paris 
ficole  Normale  during  the  first  year  and  a  half  of  class  in- 
struction. 

Advocates  of  the  direct  method  differ  among  themselves 
in  regard  to  the  use  of  the  phonetic  system  in  place  of  the  or- 
dinary spelling.  Some  go  so  far  as  to  use  the 
phonetic  characters  almost  as  diacritical  marks. 
But  I  have  observed  that  the  best  teachers  make  exclusive 
use  of  the  phonetic  system  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period. 
The  natural  query  is,  how  do  these  German  boys  ever  learn 
two  spellings  for  every  French  or  English  word  ?  The  reply 
invariably  made  is  that  no  confusion  whatever  results  ;  the 
regular  form  is  learned  quite  as  easily,  as  it  would  have  been 
at  the  beginning — yes,  more  easily,  because  knowing  the  pre- 
cise pronunciation  the  learner  has  to  grapple  with  but  one 
difficulty.  It  is  merely  the  elaboration  of  the  maxim,  "  Do 
one  thing  at  a  time."  A  close  examination  of  hundreds  of 
copy-books  convinces  me  that  for  some  reason  the  spelling  oi 
1  No.  14,  Kiihn's  Lcstbuch. 


286  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

English  presents  no  more  difficulty  to  the  German  than  to  the 
American  school-boy ;  nor  have  I  been  able  to  observe  any 
disadvantage  in  using  the  phonetic  system  while  learning  the 
pronunciation,  even  though  it  extends  over  several  months. 

One  thing  is  perfectly  apparent :  isolated  words  are  never 
used.  In  declension  and  conjugation,  as  well  as  in  the  earli- 
est conversation  in  class,  the  complete  sentence 
^Sentenc"  ^  ^s  8P°^en»  an(l  especial  pains  are  taken  that  it  be 
pronounced  fluently.  In  this  way  a  vocabulary 
is  built  up  which  consists  not  merely  of  words,  but  also  of 
idiomatic  phrases  and  sentences.  Perhaps  the  most  apparent 
effect  of  this  plan  is  to  be  seen  in  the  translations.  Never 
dealing  with  words  alone,  but  always  with  combinations  of 
words  the  significance  of  which  is  understood  as  a  whole,  the 
pupil  will  be  led  to  translate  idiomatically  and  precisely,  but 
not  word  for  word.  The  pupil  knows  the  meanings  of  words 
only  as  they  stand  in  sentences  :  a  word-for-word  translation 
seldom  conveys  the  meaning  of  a  sentence.  The  direct 
method,  therefore,  can  lay  claim  to  the  most  direct  route  to 
idiomatic  literal  translation,  the  summum  bonum  of  the  old 
school. 

The  needs  of  conversation  finally  transcend  the  school- 
room and  actions  that  can  actually  be  performed  in  class. 
With  young  pupils  something  objective  is 
necessary  to  retain  their  attention.  The  Pict- 
ures of  the  Seasons,  by  Holzel,  serve  this  purpose  excel- 
lently. They  are  large  wall  pictures,  brightly  coloured  and 
mounted  on  stiff  cardboard,  and  depict  various  phases  of 
city  and  country  life  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  In  the 
hands  of  some  teachers  these  pictures  afford  excellent  material 
for  conversation  ;  and  conversation  rightly  conducted  means 
the  acquisition  of  vocabulary,  training  in  grammatical  forms 
and  syntax  and  a  lively  appreciation  of  the  meaning  of  the 
foreign  language. 

The  first  impulse  of  the  advocates  of  the  direct  method  was 
to  make  the  study  of  grammatical  principles  a  secondary  affair ; 
what  are  popularly  termed  the  laws  of  grammar  are  merely 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  MODERN  LANGUAGES     287 

the  forms  of  expression  adopted  by  the  users  of  language. 
If,  therefore,  the  right  use  of  language  be  taught,  what  need 
is  there  of  spending  time  in  memorizing  a 
fund  of  lifeless  knowledge  ?  But  in  practice 
it  has  been  discovered  that  lifeless  knowledge 
may  not  be  useless.  The  child  that  learns  a  language  in  the 
natural  way  may  have  little  need  of  formal  grammar  ;  not  so 
the  school-boy  who  hears  the  language  only  in  class.  Prac- 
tice may  fix  habits  of  simple  expression,  but  connected  dis- 
course must  be  ordered  according  to  conscious  principles, 
even  more  than  pronunciation  needs  be  referred  to  a  system 
of  phonetics.  Hence  the  leaders  of  the  new  movement  have 
come  to  make  almost  as  much  of  formal  grammar  as  ever  did 
the  most  zealous  supporters  of  the  old  regime.  But  with  this 
difference  :  the  one  party  will  arrive  at  a  systematic  knowl- 
edge of  grammatical  forms  inductively,  as  a  result  of  language 
study  ;  the  other  will  deduce  the  right  use  of  language  from 
a  study  of  grammatical  laws.  In  practice  at  least,  grammar 
is  as  much  emphasized  by  one  party  as  by  the  other.  And 
it  is  just  at  this  point  where  the  advocates  of  the  direct 
method  part  company  with  those  who  rely  on  most  so-called 
"  natural "  methods.  There  must  be  a  basis  of  conscious 
knowledge  in  the  acquisition  of  any  language  that  is  not 
learned  as  the  child  learns  his  mother-tongue  ;  such  a  basis  is 
grammar  for  the  psychical  side  and  phonetics  for  the  physical 
— both  are  indispensable. 

The  writing  of  French  and  English  is  an  important  feature 
of  the  work  throughout  the  course.  It  begins  in  the  lowest 
class  with  writing  simple  sentences  in  phonetic 
characters ;  when  the  regular  script  is  intro- 
duced,  practice  in  spelling  is  given  in  writing 
from  dictation  ;  later  on  paraphrasing  is  a  regular  exercise, 
which  finally  merges  into  free  composition.  In  the  earlier 
part  of  the  course  the  pupil  writes  only  that  which  he  has 
learned  in  class,  but  when  he  has  gained  more  power  and 
understands  better  the  grammatical  forms  he  is  allowed  more 
freedom.  But  at  all  stages  of  progress  prose  composition  is 


288  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

the  immediate  outgrowth  of  reading,  and  is  never  dissociated 
from  it. 

The  literature  is  the  centre  of  instruction  ;  but  as  every 

teacher  knows,  much  depends  on  what  is  selected  for  class 

use.      The  classic   writers  of  a  language  may 

The  Literature.  6  J 

not  always  be  best  suited  to  enlist  the  sympathy 
and  interest  of  foreign  school-boys.  It  is  characteristic  of 
the  new  school  that  Jackanapes,  Torn  Brown's  School  Days 
and  living's  Sketch  Book  should  be  preferred  to  Emerson, 
Macaulay  or  Shakespeare.  A  rational  understanding  of  a 
foreign  literature  must  grow  out  of  a  comprehensive  knowl- 
edge of  the  national  life.  The  history,  geography  and  social 
customs  of  the  country  must  be  studied  along  with  its  lan- 
guage. The  school  courses  in  history  and  geography  can  be 
so  correlated  with  the  language  work  as  to  be  of  great  assist- 
ance. If  the  literature  is  properly  selected,  it  will  reflect  the 
social  life  and  personal  characteristics  of  the  people  in  a  way 
to  command  the  attention  of  any  class,  and  give  pith  and 
point  to  conversation  and  prose  composition.  Hence  I  found 
Dr.  Quiehl  using  in  his  highest  French  class  Bruno's  Le 
Tour  de  la  France  par  deux  Enfants ;  and  in  Berlin  Dr. 
Hausknecht,  whose  teaching  I  much  admired,  was  using  as 
the  basis  of  his  second-year  English  a  book  of  his  own  com- 
position on  the  school  life  of  an  English  boy.  Such  material 
is  easily  supplemented,  and  is  a  constant  incentive  to  conver- 
sation and  oral  reproduction. 

This  method  of  language  teaching  requires  specially  trained 
teachers.  In  the  first  place,  they  must  be  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  foreign  tongue,  must  know  it  idio- 
matically  and  be  able  to  use  it  fluently  ;  second- 
ly, they  must  understand  its  phonetic  peculiar- 
ities and  grammatical  construction  ;  and  in  the  third  place, 
they  must  have  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  culture 
and  customs  of  the  people  whose  language  they  will  teach. 
In  fact,  this  kind  of  teaching  is  more  than  instruction  in 
language  and  literature ;  it  is  training  in  foreign  culture 
through  language  and  literature.  It  is  closely  correlated  at 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  MODERN  LANGUAGES     289 

all  points  with  the  course  of  study  in  history  and  geography, 
and  re-enforces  both  at  every  step.  This  is  what  gives  it 
life  and  vigour,  and  makes  the  results  so  eminently  superior 
to  any  method  that  deals  exclusively  with  language  and 
literature. 

The  Prussian  Lehrplan  of  1892  gave  the  adherents  of  the 
Victor  school  precisely  the  support  they  wanted.     It  set  as 
the  aim  of  modern-language   teaching,  famil-  Ite^D£orced  b 
iarity  with  the  living  tongue  and  an  intimate     the  Prussian 
acquaintance  with  the  life  of  the  people  who     0°™™"™*- 
use  it.     The  idea  of  making  French   and    English  a  Real- 
school  substitute  for  the  classical  languages  was  intentionally 
abandoned  ;  instead  of  formal  discipline  of  the  mental  facul- 
ties, the  government  set  as  the  standard  of  excellence  the 
ability  to  use  the  modern  language  and  the  knowledge  of 
modern  literature  and  social  life.     Not  power  in  general,  but 
power  in  special  directions,  was  made  the  end  of  all  such  in- 
struction. 

The  government  understands  full  well  that  this  end  is  be- 
yond the  reach  of  most  teachers.  Few  of  them  have  enjoyed 
the  advantages  of  residence  in  France  or  Eng- 

,        ,  ,  .  ,  •       j    •         i          Holiday  Courses. 

land,  and  not  many  have  been  trained  in  pho- 
netics or  have  any  acquaintance  with  the  methods  of   the 
reformers.     Holiday  courses,  therefore,  have  become  a  prac- 
tical necessity,  and  the  government  is   heartily  supporting 
Shem.     The  intention  is  to  give  teachers  a  two  weeks'  leave 
of  absence    once  a  year,  if  they  will  attend  these  courses 
Such  a  subsidy,  it  is  thought,  will  make  the  attendance  suf- 
ficiently large  to  warrant  the  engagement  of  able  instructors, 
and  to  arouse  a  permanent  interest  in  distinctly  modern-lan- 
guage teaching. 

It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  rank  and  file  of  mod- 
ern language  teachers  can  be  brought  to  an  intelligent  ap- 
preciation of  the  new  methods  and  trained  to 

i  t     xv.  A      r-j    j       x-        »     The  Outlook. 

make    good    use  of    them.      A   '•  deductive 

method  they  can  understand,  an  "  inductive  "  method  they 

can  understand  ;  but  it  is  an  open  question  whether  many  of 

19 


290  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

them  can  make  the  combination  of  the  two,  on  the  modern 
social  basis  which  is  the  secret  of  all  the  success  of  the  Victor 
school.  This  is,  however,  no  argument  against  the  reform- 
ers. Some  teachers  cannot  make  a  conspicuous  success  of 
any  method ;  some  are  bound  to  win  under  any  circum- 
stances. But  given  a  good  teacher,  the  training  of  the 
Vietor  school  will  make  him  a  better  teacher. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — Walter,  Entwurf  eines  Lehrplanes  fur  den 
franzosischen  Unterricht,  Marburg;  Quiehl,  Franz,  Aussprache  und 
Sprachfertigkeit,  Marburg ;  Hano,  Anleitung  zur  Erlernung  der  franz. 
Umgangssprache,  Frankfort ;  Holzel,  Bilderbuch  fur  Schule  und  Haus, 
Vienna ;  Wieke,  Einfuhrung  in  die  Engl.  Sprache,  Leipsic ;  Ohlers, 
Methodische  Anleitung  zur  Unterricht  im  Franzosischen,  Hanover; 
Wilke,  Anschauungs-Unterricht  im  Englischen,  Leipsic;  Beyer  and 
Passy,  Elementarbuch  des  gesprochenen  Franzosischen,  COthen  ;  Sweet, 
Elementarbuch  des  gesprochenen  Englischen,  Oxford ;  Walter,  Anfangs- 
Unterricht  im  Englischen  (program  of  Realschule),  Cassel ;  Klinghardt, 
Ein  Jahr  Erfahrungen  mit  der  imitativen  Methode  ;  Drei  Weitere  Jahre, 
etc.,  Marburg;  Junker,  Lehrversuch  im  Englischen  nach  der  neuen 
Methode  (Realschule  program),  Bockenheim  ;  Zergiebel,  Grammatik  und 
naturliche  Spracherlernung  (Realschule  program),  Cassel;  Breymann, 
Die  neusprachliche  Reform- Litteratur  von  1876-1893,  Ijeipsic,  1895 ; 
Waetzoldt,  Die  Aufgdbe  des  neusprachlichen  Unterrichts  und  die  Vor- 
bildung  der  Lehrer,  Berlin,  1893 ;  Baumeister,  Handbuch  der  Erziehungs- 
und  Unterrichtslehre,  Munich. 


CHAPTER  XV 

INSTRUCTION  IN  HISTORY  AND   GEOGRAPHY 

"  IT  has  to  be  remarked,"  says  Comenius,  "  that  in  every 
class,  history,  as  the  eye  of  life,  should  find  a  place,  so  that 
all  that  is  most  memorable  in  the  past,  both  in 
deed  and  word  may  be  known.     This,  so  far     Co="f™on 

J  History. 

from  increasing  the  burden  on  pupils,  will 
lighten  their  labours.  Little  text-books  should  be  written, 
viz.,  one  on  biblical  history  ;  one  on  natural  things  ;  one  on 
inventions  and  mechanical  arts  ;  one  exhibiting  the  most  il- 
lustrious examples  of  virtue  ;  one  on  the  various  customs  of 
nations  ;  and,  finally,  one  containing  all  that  is  most  signifi- 
cant in  the  history  of  the  world  and  especially  of  our  own 
country." 

It  is  remarkable  that,  notwithstanding  the  high  regard  in 
which  the  study  of  history  was  held  both  by  Luther  and 
Melanchthon,  no  serious  attempt  was  made  to 
introduce  it  into  the  secondary  schools  before 
the  time  of  Comenius.  The  Jesuits  were  early 
impressed  with  the  correctness  of  Comenius'  ideas,  and  gave 
history  a  place  in  their  curriculum.  Others,  notably  Francke 
and  Leibnitz,  did  something  for  the  teaching  of  history  in 
the  secondary  schools  ;  but  so  little  time  was  given  to  the  sub- 
ject that  the  work  degenerated  into  the  mere  memorizing  of 
historical  facts.  Frederick  the  Great,  in  the  truly  rationalis- 
tic spirit,  severely  criticised  the  pedagogues  of  his  day  for 
stuffing  the  memories  of  the  pupils,  giving  no  heed  whatso- 
ever to  the  development  of  the  powers  of  judgment.  In  his 
instructions  to  the  Berlin  Ritterakademie  (1765),  he  said  :  "  It 

291 


292  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

is  no  longer  permissible  for  a  young  man  who  will  live  in  the 
great  world  not  to  know  the  events  which  belong  in  the  chain 
of  European  history."  In  his  opinion,  a  knowledge  of  Jthe 
history  of  the  classical  world  was  of  little  value  without  the 
ability  to  apply  it  to  modern  conditions.  The  immediate 
outcome  of  the  rationalistic  movement  was  a  change  in  the 
method  of  treating  history,  as  well  as  a  decided  increase  (four 
to  six  hours)  in  the  number  of  week-hour?  devoted  to  the 
study.  In  the  upper  classes  of  some  schools,  the  method  now 
frequently  recommended  could  be  found  even  then  in  actual 
operation.  A  whole  semester,  and  in  some  instances  an  en- 
tire year,  was  devoted  to  an  intensive  study  of  special  topics. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  when  things  were 
shaping  for  the  subsequent  development  of  the  German 
school  system,  the  influence  of  F.  A.  Wolf  was 
such  as  to  retard  the  study  of  history.  In  his 
opinion,  nothing  should  be  taught  in  a  Gymnasium  that  did 
not  serve  directly  as  a  preparation  for  the  learned  professions. 
Little  can  be  gained  from  a  study  of  modern  history,  he 
urges,  that  does  not  tend  to  narrow  and  pervert  a  young  man's 
judgment.  Mediaeval  history  can  contribute  little,  because 
the  events  of  that  period  are  not  such  as  to  elevate  or  inspire. 
In  fact,  ancient  history  is  the  only  history  of  any  value,  be- 
cause in  it  we  learn  of  the  motives  and  acts  of  the  greatest 
people  the  world  has  ever  seen,  of  the  causes  that  made  them 
great  and  of  the  errors  which  brought  about  their  ruin.  Such 
knowledge  must  be  not  only  a  desirable,  but  also  an  essential 
element  in  a  well-rounded  education.  With  Herbart,  history 
received  a  prominent  place  in  the  curriculum.  He  consid- 
ered a  knowledge  of  what  man  has  done  and  suffered,  of  what 
he  has  tried  to  do  and  the  reasons  for  his  failures,  as  the  surest 
means  of  rousing  a  pupil's  interest  in  the  past  and  inspiring 
him  with  lofty  sentiments.  History  becomes,  therefore,  a 
study  of  particular  value.  Its  object  is  not  only  intellectual, 
but  moral  development.  Old  Testament  history  deserves  a 
place  beside  that  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Schleiermacher,  too, 
called  history  the  picture-book  of  ethics. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  HISTORY  AND  GEOGRAPHY   293 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  humanistic  schools,  where  the 
•chief  end  of  education  was  a  familiarity  with  classic  authors, 
and  where  the  whole  course  of  training  was 
purely  formal,  there  was  no  place  for  history.  Infl'J^B£sf  the 
But  with  the  introduction  of  realistic  notions, 
through  Comenius,  Locke  and  Rousseau,  together  with  the 
utilitarian  ideas  which  characterized  the  period  of  enlighten- 
ment, the  study  of  history  and  geography  was  recommended 
for  its  practical  worth.  "A  man,"  said  Frederick  the  Great, 
"  who  does  not  imagine  himself  fallen  from  heaven,  who  does 
not  date  the  history  of  the  world  from  the  day  of  his  birth, 
must  be  curious  to  know  what  has  taken  place  in  all  ages  and 
in  all  lands."  But  neither  Frederick  the  Great  nor  the  edu- 
cators of  his  time  believed  that  a  mere  knowledge  of  useful 
facts  is  the  chief  end  of  the  study  of  history.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  was  held  that  the  study  of  history  offers  the  best  op- 
portunity for  the  development  of  the  discriminative  judgment. 
Properly_presented,  it  teaches  the  pupil  to  pass  over  the 
unessential,  and  fasten  upon  the  important  links  in  the  chain 
of  causes.  It  affords  scope  for  common-sense  comparison,  and 
aids  in  the  formation  of  judgments  which  have  a  practical 
bearing  upon  the  affairs  of  every-day  life.  History  has  never 
been  so  strongly  emphasized  as  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  In  the  opinion  of  von  Zedlitz,  minister 
of  education  under  Frederick  the  Great,  six  or  seven  hours  a 
week  were  not  too  much  time  to  give  to  historical  studies. 
With  the  reorganization  of  the  Prussian  school  system  at  the 
close  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  three  hours  a  week  were  assigned 
to  history  and  geography  (program  of  1816).  As  the  schools 
came  more  and  more  under  the  influence  of  the  humanistic 
leaders,  and  education  became  increasingly  formal,  history 
fell  into  the  background — if  not  in  theory,  at  least  in  prac- 
tice. As  taught  in  the  schools,  it  amounted  to  little  more 
than  sketches  of  military  campaigns  and  the  memorizing  of 
dates. 

The  new  Prussian  Lehrplan  of  1892  lays  great  stress  upon 
the  language,  literature  and  history  of  Germany.      These 


294  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

must  be  the  centre  to  which  all  else  tends.     The  secondary 

schools  are  looked  upon  as  the  mainstay  of  the  throne,  and 

the  supreme  authority  has  declared  that  these 

Lehrplan  of  1892.  r  .  . 

schools  shall  turn  out  patriotic  citizens.  To  this 
end,  nothing  should  be  left  undone  to  give  the  youth  of  the 
fatherland  a  critical  insight  into  the  history  of  the  German 
empire.  As  Goethe  puts  it,  the  best  that  we  get  from  history 
is  the  enthusiasm  which  it  arouses.  With  this  in  mind,  the 
education  department  of  the  Prussian  government  has  set  a 
new  stamp  on  the  educational  value  of  history.  It  is  held  to 
be  of  worth  primarily  for  its  ethico-religious  influence  in  the 
development  of  character. 

Granted  that  history  shall  have  a  place  in  the  curriculum, 
what  kind  of  history  should  it  be — political  history?  or  some- 
thing more  comprehensive?  national,  or  general 
histor7?  Obviously,  the  gymnasial  policy  has 
been  to  consider  political  history  as  of  little 
worth  in  comparison  with  the  broader  and  more  comprehen- 
sive history  of  civilization,  and  national  history  as  narrow  and 
one-sided  when  viewed  in  the  light  of  general  history.  Prior 
to  the  reform  of  1892,  the  secondary  schools  of  Prussia  ac- 
cepted history  as  an  end  in  itself,  without  reference  to  its 
practical  bearing  in  the  training  of  citizens.  "  The  object  of 
historical  instruction  in  the  Gymnasium,"  according  to  the 
rescript  of  1882,  "  is  to  arouse  in  the  pupils  a  respect  for  the 
moral  greatness  of  individual  men  and  nations,  to  make  them 
conscious  of  their  own  imperfect  insight,  and  to  give  them 
the  ability  to  read  understandingly  the  greatest  historical 
classics."  The  Lehrplan  of  1892  brings  prominently  to  the 
front  the  necessity  of  understanding  the  events  in  German 
and  Prussian  history.  It  is  the  national  history  rather  than 
the  universal  which  is  emphasized  :  the  political  which  has 
culminated  in  a  new  and  regenerated  German  empire,  rather 
than  the  general  which  deals  with  the  salient  points  in  the 
progress  of  civilization. 

It  shows  clearly  the  determination  of  the  government  to 
make  use  of  the  schools  in  stemming  the  tides  of  socialism 


INSTRUCTION  IN  HISTORY  AND  GEOGRAPHY   205 

and  liberalism.  History  is  to  be  taught,  not  altogether  as 
a  means  for  intellectual  training,  nor  as  an  essential  part 
of  a  liberal  education,  nor  yet  as  an  independent  science,  but 
pre-eminently  with  a  view  to  the  making  of  patriotic  cit- 
izens. 

The  new  syllabus  also  shows  a  change  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  course  in  history.  Formerly  there  were  two  years  of 
mythology  and  biography  in  the  first  part  of 
the  course,  beginning  with  the  legendary  his- 
tory  of  Greece  and  coming  down  to  the  early 
history  of  Germany.  The  new  Lehrplan  provides  that  in  Sexto, 
scenes  in  the  national  history  shall  be  described,  begin- 
ning with  the  events  which  are  closely  related  to  the  pupils' 
own  environment,  and  working  from  the  present  back  into 
the  past.  This  regression  continues  throughout  the  first  year, 
and  in  Quinta  it  reaches  the  legendary  history  of  Greece  and 
Rome.  The  chief  events  of  Grecian  history  to  the  death  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  of  Roman  history  to  the  death  of 
Augustus,  are  taken  up  in  the  following  year  (Quarto).  In 
Untertertia  the  chronological  order  is  followed  to  the  end  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  Obertertia  continues  the  work  to  the  ac- 
cession of  Frederick  the  Great,  with  special  reference  to  the 
history  of  Brandenburg.  Untersecunda  fills  out  the  course  to 
the  present  time.  Up  to  this  point  the  course  is  the  same 
for  both  six-year  and  nine-year  schools.  The  three  upper 
grades  of  the  latter  begin  again  with  an  intensive  study  of 
Grecian  and  Roman  history  in  Obersecunda,  of  the  mediaeval 
and  modern  history  to  the  end  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  in 
Unterprima  and  of  the  later  developments  down  to  the 
present  time  in  Obcrprima. 

The  introduction  of  the  Absclilussprilfung  at  the  end  of 
Untersecunda  determined  the  allotment  of  the  work  in  the 
middle  and  upper  grades.  The  course  as  a  whole,  however, 
has  thereby  been  cut  up  into  three  distinct  parts  :  the  first  of 
these  proceeds  from  the  present  back  to  the  legendary  history 
of  the  Greeks  ;  the  second  begins  with  early  Grecian  history 
and  traces  the  casual  series,  so  far  at  least  as  the  German  peo- 


296  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

pie  are  concerned,  down  to  the  present ;  the  third  is  but  a 
larger  circle  drawn  around  the  other  two. 

Teachers  of  history  who  believe  in  maintaining  a  strict  con- 
tinuity, and  who  think  that  the  explanation  of  present  events 
is  to  be  sought  in  causes  lying  in  the  past,  have 

Objections.  .     6  * 

no  faith  in  the  manner  of  treatment  suggested 
for  the  first  and  second  years  in  the  Prussian  course ;  and 
least  of  all  will  they  tolerate  the  division  in  the  courses  at  the 
end  of  the  first  six  years.  Another  class  of  educators  is  un- 
alterably opposed  to  the  allotment  of  only  two  years  to  an- 
cient history,  one  year  of  which  (Quarto)  is  at  the  very  be- 
ginning of  the  true  historical  course.  Furthermore,  it  has 
been  pointed  out  that,  inasmuch  as  the  leaving  examinations 
are  based  solely  upon  the  work  of  Untersecunda  and  Ober- 
prima  respectively,  no  direct  tests  can  be  made  of  scholars' 
attainments  in  either  Grecian  or  Roman  history,  and  that 
this  applies  no  less  to  the  Oymnasien  than  to  the  Real- 
schools. 

Prussia  may  change  her  course  of  study  as  often  as  she 
pleases,  she  may  dictate  what  shall  be  taken  up  in  each  class  ; 
but  she  cannot  change  the  views  of  her  teachers  by  a  minis- 
terial rescript.  To  all  appearances,  the  new  order  has  served 
to  introduce  only  confusion  into  the  history  teaching  of  most 
schools.  The  veterans  educated  and  trained  under  the  old 
dispensation  are  not  anxious,  as  a  rule,  to  adapt  themselves  to 
the  new  requirements,  which  have  all  the  appearance  of  using 
the  teachers  as  props  for  bolstering  up  the  throne.  I  regret 
to  say  that  I  was  unable  to  find  in  any  Prussian  school  what 
might  be  considered  as  a  typical  illustration  of  the  Prussian 
program.  Furthermore,  very  few  of  the  German  states  have 
followed  Prussia's  lead  in  the  matter  of  teaching  history. 

There  are  those  who  maintain  that  the  emperor's  idea  of 
making  the  special  aim  of  historical  study  the  fostering  of  a 
national  spirit,  while  in  theory  perfectly  correct,  is  neverthe- 
less pedagogically  short-sighted.  They  maintain  that  patriot- 
ism should  be  more  than  mere  enthusiasm,  more  enduring 
than  the  frothy  exuberance  of  spirits  that  arises  from  the 


INSTRUCTION  IN  HISTORY  AND  GEOGRAPHY   297 

contemplation  of  great  deeds  ;  that  love  of  country  and  of 
king  depends  upon  a  firm  and  unchangeable  character.  It 
follows,  therefore,  that  character-building  must  at  least  go 
hand  in  hand  with  the  development  of  the  patriotic  spirit. 
The  best  representatives  of  this  school  are  unquestionably  the 
Herbartians. 

The  lamented  Dr.  Frick,  of  Halle,  untiringly  advocated 
more  rational  methods  in  the  teaching  of  history.  Probably 
no  man  in  Germany  has  done  more  than  he  in  working  out  a 
course  of  study  closely  correlated  with  the  work  in  German, 
the  classical  languages,  geography  and  religion.  He  had 
great  influence  in  the  Berlin  conference,  and  his  views  were 
largely  instrumental  in  effecting  some  of  the  more  important 
changes  there  made.  It  is  to  be  regretted,  however,  that 
other  interests  interfered  with  the  complete  expression  of  hia 
views. 

The  teaching  of  geography  in  the  German  schools  has  be- 
come a  highly  perfected  art.  I  am  not  sure  but  geography 
is  the  best  taught  subject,  on  the  whole,  of  all 
the  subjects  of  the  curriculum.  At  any  rate, 
one  sees  less  of  offensive  formalism  and  more  of  intelligent 
freedom  in  the  treatment  of  geographical  topics  than  in  al- 
most any  other  sphere.  In  its  present  form  geography  i,s  a 
very  modern  subject.  It  took  its  rise  from  Karl  Hitter,  who 
acknowledged  his  indebtedness  to  Pestalozzi  for  suggestions 
as  to  natural  methods  of  teaching.  And  from  that  day  to 
this  there  has  been  no  lack  of  university  instruction  for  the 
teachers  of  the  secondary  and  normal  schools.  The  influence 
of  a  few  such  men  as  Ratzel,  of  Leipsic  ;  Kiepert,  of  Berlin  ; 
Kirchhoff,  of  Halle ;  and  Sievers,  of  Giessen — all  interested 
in  the  training  of  teachers — is  sufficient  to  give  geography 
a  high  rank  in  the  schools. 

But  geography,  so  far  as  it  has  to  do  with  the  earth  as  the 
abode  of  man,  is  inseparable  from  history  ;  and  in  the  sec- 
ondary schools  of  Germany  history  and  geography  keep  even 
step.  Except  possibly  in  the  first  two  years  of  the  course, 
geography  is  nowhere  an  independent  study  in  the  higher 


298  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

schools.  The  study  of  topography  and  of  political  and  com- 
mercial geography  and  the  drawing  of  maps  are  closely  corre- 
lated with  the  work  in  history.  The  general 
truths  of  mathematical  and  physical  geography 
which  have  no  direct  bearing  upon  the  events 
of  history  are  taught  incidentally,  one  might  say,  in  the 
lower  grades.  On  the  other  hand,  the  more  important 
facts  of  physical  geography,  meteorology  and  geology  are 
generally  carefully  expounded  in  the  best  German  schools 
as  a  partial  explanation  of  political  and  social  conditions.  It 
is  for  this  reason  that  in  nearly  all  secondary-school  pro- 
grams of  Germany  history  and  geography  are  classed  to- 
gether as  a  single  subject.  In  so  doing,  to  be  sure,  geog- 
raphy loses  some  of  the  characteristics  which  would  naturally 
place  it  among  the  natural  sciences  ;  but  as  the  object  both 
in  history  and  geography  is  not  so  much  to  develop  an  ac- 
curate scientific  knowledge  of  these  subjects  as  the  formation 
of  certain  habits  of  thought  and  feeling,  the  correlation  is  a 
distinct  gain  for  both  studies.  The  union  is  made  still  closer 
by  placing  the  instruction  of  both  in  the  hands  of  the  same 
teacher. 

As  a  typical  example  of  those  schools  in  which  history  and 

geography  seem  to  have  a  place  commensurate  with  their 

value  as  an  educational  means,  and  in  which 

Jena  Program.  .          . 

the  problems  of  historical  and  geographical 
teaching  are  being  solved  in  the  best  pedagogical  manner,  I 
select  the  Gymnasium  of  Jena.  The  Director  of  the  school, 
Dr.  G.  Richter,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Dr.  Frick  and  for 
several  years  co-editor  with  him  of  the  Lelirproben  und 
Lehrgdnge,  in  which  some  of  the  best  pedagogical  work  of 
the  secondary  schools  has  been  published.  Dr.  Richter, 
however,  is  more  than  an  expounder  of  the  views  which 
have  made  Dr.  Frick  famous.  He  has  associated  with  him 
in  his  school  faculty  several  able  young  men  who  are  in 
entire  accord  with  the  Herbartian  views  as  modified  by  Drs. 
Frick  and  Richter.  It  is  to  their  united  efforts  that  success 
is  due. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  HISTORY  AND  GEOGRAPHY   299 

The  program  for  history  and  geography  in  the  first  two 
classes  of  the  Jena  Gymnasium  is  as  follows  : 

SEXTA. 

History  and  German,  3  hours.  Stories  from  the  Odyssey 
and  selections  from  German  legendary  history.  Geography, 
2  hours,  (a)  Simple  geographical  notions  to  be 

1  j.      v      T  it  T  Course  in  Lower 

gained  from  Jena  and  the  surrounding  country.        Grades 
Eleven  excursions  to  various  points  of  interest 
in  the   neighborhood,      (b)  Thuringia — (1)  The  map;    (2) 
course  of  the  Saale,  as  far  as  Halle  ;  (3)  Ilni  ;  (4)  Unstrut  ; 
(5)  Elster  ;  (6)  Werra,  as  far  as  Esehwege  ;  (7)  Itz  ;  (8)  rail- 
roads.    Chief  topics  :  elevations,  climate,  products,  industry, 
trade,  religion  and  political  divisions.     Throughout  the  en- 
tire year  observations  of  the    temperature,   winds,  position 
and  movements  of  the  sun  and  moon — all  of  which  are  en- 
tered in  a  note-book. 

QDTNTA. 

History  and  Geography,  4  hours,  (a)  German  mythology 
and  history,  chiefly  Thuringian  ;  selections  of  typical  scenes. 
With  the  extension  of  the  history  proceeds  the  gradual  de- 
velopment of  the  geography,  until  it  includes  all  Germany. 
Map-drawing,  at  first  of  Germany  ;  then  a  gradual  extension 
to  all  other  European  countries. 

The  Jena  program  of  the  work  for  the  first  two  classes 
differs  from  the  Prussian  syllabus  in  that  comparatively  little 
attention  is  given  to  classical  mythology.  In  fact,  stories 
from  the  Odyssey  are  about  all  that  are  not  German.  In 
Sexta  there  is  very  little  of  what  could  be  called  under  any 
stretch  of  imagination  historical  work  ;  and,  contrary  to  the 
Prussian  plan,  the  entire  time  of  Quinta  is  devoted  to  a  sys- 
tematic description  of  the  chief  events  in  German  history. 

In  Sexta  the  geographical  instruction  is  particularly  inter- 
esting. The  Gymnasium  is  situated  on  ground  once  occu- 
pied by  the  city  walls.  The  broad  street  now 
separating  the  old  city  from  its  modern  suburbs 
gives  a  starting-point  for  a  map  of  the  town. 
It  is  linked,  too,  with  historical  associations  that  easily  arouse 
the  interest  of  the  pupils.  Pictures  of  the  old  town  before 


300  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

the  walls  were  removed  are  still  to  be  had.  An  occasional 
watch-tower  yet  remains  standing  as  a  monument  of  former 
times.  A  few  minutes'  walk  brings  the  teacher  with  his  class 
to  one  of  a  dozen  points  of  interest  in  the  town.  The  river 
Saale,  with  its  tributaries,  can  be  traced  for  fifteen  or  twenty 
miles  from  the  heights.  The  location  of  a  dozen  villages  can 
be  indicated  on  the  map  as  a  result  of  a  single  excursion  to  a 
neighbouring  hilltop.  In  fact,  the  excursions  which  are  al- 
ways made  by  teacher  and  pupils  during  this  first  year  furnish 
the  fundamental  concepts  necessary  at  the  beginning  of  geo- 
graphical study  ;  and  the  observations  taken  day  by  day  of  the 
movements  of  heavenly  bodies,  fluctuations  in  temperature 
and  changes  of  the  wind  are  the  basis  of  all  future  work  in 
mathematical  geography  and  meteorology. 

The  work  of  Quinta  is  divided  into  some  thirty  or  forty 
topics,  the  most  of  which  can  be  centred  about  some  illus- 
trious man  or  great  event.  These  embrace  a 
description  of  the  Cimbri  and  Teutons,  their 
subjugation  and  liberation  ;  stories  of  Drusus,  Germanicus 
and  Armin,  together  with  the  geography  of  western  Germany  ; 
the  Slavic  invasions  of  eastern  Germany  ;  the  coming  of  the 
Christians  ;  Charlemagne  and  his  times  ;  the  building  of  the 
Wartburg ;  the  Crusades ;  great  Thuringian  rulers  ;  found- 
ing of  the  universities  ;  Hussites  in  Thuringia  and  the  Refor- 
mation ;  the  Thirty  Years'  War ;  Brandenburg  and  Prussia  ; 
Karl  August,  Goethe  and  Schiller  ;  Napoleon,  and  the  battles 
of  Jena  and  Leipsic ;  Stein,  Bliicher  and  Scharnhorst ;  the 
new  German  Empire  ;  Wilhelm  I.,  Bismarck  and  Moltke. 

The  Jena  Gymnasium  is  peculiarly  fortunate  in  having 
some  of  the  best  teachers  which  it  has  ever  been  my  privilege 
to  hear.     The  younger  members  of  the  faculty 
TeacWn°f      *n  Par^cu^ar  have  given  much  time  and  labour 
to  the  development  of  rational  methods  in  the 
teaching  of  history  and  geography.     In  the  lower  grades  a 
typical  recitation  begins  with  a  review  of  such  parts  of  pre- 
vious lessons  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  proper  understand- 
ing and  assimilation  of  the  topic  about  to  be  presented.     From 


INSTRUCTION  IN  HISTORY  AND  GEOGRAPHY   301 

five  to  ten  minutes  of  the  hour  may  pass  in  this  way.  Then 
comes  the  narration  of  the  new  story,  with  particular  emphasis 
upon  certain  important  events,  personages  and  dates.  As  the 
teacher  proceeds  with  the  story,  he  develops  an  outline  on  the 
board  which  he  has  previously  carefully  prepared.  As  he 
places  this  upon  the  board,  point  by  point,  the  pupils  enter 
it  into  their  note-books.  Historical  pictures  are  freely  used, 
to  bring  out  clearly  references  made  to  the  military,  social, 
family  or  industrial  life  of  the  times. 

This  use  of  illustrative  material,  be  it  said,  Is  more  com- 
mon in  German  schools  than  in  American.  It  may  be  in  a 
.  large  measure  due  to  the  lamentable  fact  that 
we  in  America  are  at  a  serious  disadvantage  in 
this  respect.  Our  pictures,  charts  and  maps 
are  decidedly  inferior  to  the  German  in  point  of  accuracy, 
execution  and  artistic  merit.  The  German  teachers  of  Sexta 
and  Quinta  have  at  command  an  elaborate  series  of  pictures 
and  charts  illustrating  almost  every  phase  of  national  life  from 
the  earliest  times  to  the  present.  What  cannot  be  obtained 
by  reproduction  of  famous  works  of  art  is  supplied  in  the 
form  of  ideal  illustrations  executed  in  accordance  with  the 
best  scholarship  obtainable. 

The  pedagogical  value  of  such  use  of  pictures  in  class  work, 
so  Germans  maintain,  is  very  great.     It  is  said  that  the  child 
living  in  the  present  and  thinking  in  the  terms 
of  the  present  is  unable  to  adjust  himself  to  the    It8  ^cuf  onal 
past  without  great  efforts  of  the  imagination. 
It  is  peculiarly  the  function  of  pictures  to  assist  the  mind  of 
the  child  in  grasping  the  real  significance  of  past  events. 
They  are  of  particular  importance,  too,  in  the  teaching  of 
geography.    At  first  the  child  acquires  a  store  of  geographical 
ideas  from  observation  of  his  local  environment.    The  moment 
he  is  asked  to  go  beyond  his  actual  experience,  he  must  draw 
upon  his  imagination.     It  is  too  much  to  assume  that  he  will 
grasp  the  fnll  significance  of  geographical  facts  which  are 
totally  unconnected  with  anything  already  known  ;  but  pict- 
ures properly  executed  may  be  of  the  greatest  service  in  the 


302  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

development  of  the  constructive  imagination,  provided  care 
be  taken  that  the  child  interpret  correctly  what  the  picture 
presents. 

In  the  presentation  of  the  lesson  the  teacher  will  of  neces- 
sity often  be  obliged  to  consider  the  topography  of  the  country 
in  which  the  scene  of  the  story  is  laid.     This 

Division  of  Time.     .  J 

involves  an  elaboration  of  the  geographical 
knowledge  of  the  class.  It  may  happen  that  a  halt  must  be 
called  in  the  development  of  the  historical  side,  in  order  that 
maps  of  the  region  may  be  drawn  and  the  physical  character- 
istics of  the  country  carefully  studied.  In  general,  it  is  ex- 
pected that  the  equivalent  of  one  or  two  hours  a  week  will  be 
given  to  this  phase  of  the  work  during  the  first  four  or  five 
years  of  the  course.  If  no  such  interruptions  are  necessary, 
the  teacher  will  give  not  more  than  half  of  the  hour  to  the 
presentation  of  new  material. 

The  next  step  in  the  lesson  is  the  oral  reproduction  by  the 
pupils  of  what  has  just  been  told  them,  according  to  the  out- 
line as  it  stands  before  them  on  the  board.     No 

Excellent  Reeulte.  ,  . 

one  who  has  observed  this  part  of  the  recitation 
in  the  Jena  Gymnasium  can  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  in- 
tense interest  manifested  by  the  pupils,  as  shown  in  their  eager- 
ness to  tell  what  they  know  and  to  discuss  its  consequences. 

There  is  a  life  and  vigour  to  be  found  here,  which,  I  regret 
to  say,  I  rarely  saw  elsewhere.  One  pupil  begins  to  tell  the 
story,  and  at  a  convenient  resting-point  he  is  succeeded  by  an- 
other ;  and  so  on  in  regular  order,  until  perchance  some  wrong 
impression  calls  up  a  more  general  class  discussion.  When- 
ever an  important  name  or  date  occurs,  the  pupils  rise  and 
repeat  it  in  concert ;  thus  the  attention  of  all  is  fixed  more 
closely  upon  the  topical  outline  of  the  lesson. 

It  would  hardly  be  doing  the  Herbartian  teacher  justice  to 
say  that  the  oral  reproduction  is  the  final  step  of  the  lesson. 
He  would  certainly  consider  his  work  very  much  of  a  failure 
if,  in  addition  to  proper  preparation  and  presentation,  he  did 
not  proceed  to  generalize  and  to  make  application  of  the  truth 
of  the  lesson  to  the  e very-day  life  of  the  scholars.  A  Jena 


INSTRUCTION  IN  HISTORY  AND  GEOGRAPHY   303 

teacher  will  rarely  fail  in  this  respect.     The  lesson  is  a  work 
of  art. 

The  program  for  the  second  part  of  the  work  in  history 
and  geography  is  as  follows  : 

QUARTA. 

History  and  Geography,  4  hours,  (a)  Geography  of  the 
Balkan  Peninsula,  the  Carpathian  countries  and  Asia,  par- 
ticularly Asia  Minor ;  Grecian  history  to  146 
B.C.  (b)  Geography  of  Italy,  Spain,  France 
and  Africa,  especially  northern  Africa  ;  Roman 
history  to  476  A.D. 

UNTERTERTIA. 

History  and  Geography,  3  hours,  (a)  Geography  of  central 
Europe,  with  special  reference  to  physical  characteristics  and 
political  history  ;  German  history  to  1096  A.D.  (b)  German 
history  from  1096  to  1555  ;  outlines  of  American  geography, 
in  connection  with  the  history  of  discovery. 

OBERTERTIA. 

History  and  Geography,  3  hours,  (a)  Modern  history 
from  1555  to  1700  ;  the  geography  of  Great  Britain,  the 
Scandinavian  Peninsula,  Denmark,  France  and  Kussia  ;  re- 
view of  European  geography,  (b)  Modern  history  from  1700 
to  1815  and  from  1864  to  1871  ;  geography  of  America  and 
Australia  and  of  the  German  colonies. 

The  most  important  deviation  from  the  Prussian  course 
that  appears  in  the  Jena  Lehrplan  is  in  the  amount  of  time 
devoted  to  the  history  of  Greece  and   Rome. 
The  Prussian  plan,  as  lias  been  stated,  gives  but     Tb^^8iai 
two  years  to  this  work — one  in  Quarta,  when 
the  pupils  are  but  twelve  years  old,  which  covers  the  whole 
field  of  classical  history  in  a  single  year  of  two  lessons  per 
week  ;  the  other  year  is  in  Obersecunda,  during  which  all  of 
Greek  and  Roman  history  to  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire 
is  done  in  three  lessons  per  week.     Further  than  this  there 
is  nothing  of  classical  history,  not  even  a  review  in  the  last 
year  of  the  course.     The  Prussian  Lehrplan,  as  has  been  pre- 


304  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

viously  mentioned,  has  been  arranged  with  a  view  to  the 
practical  needs  of  those  who  leave  school  at  the  end  of  a  six 
years'  course  (about  forty  per  cent,  of  the  entire  number) ;  and 
it  has  been  considered  especially  desirable,  therefore,  that 
they  should  take  with  them  a  well-rounded  training  in  the 
language,  literature  and  history  of  Germany  and  in  religion. 
Hence,  the  Grecian  history  formerly  taught  in  Untersecunda 
has  given  way  to  an  additional  year  of  modern  history.  Few 
other  German  states  have  adopted  the  Prussian  plan  to  this 
extent.  There  are  undoubtedly  certain  practical  advantages 
connected  with  it,  both  in  the  emphasis  placed  on  modern 
history  and  in  the  division  of  the  work  made  for  the  benefit 
of  those  who  do  not  intend  to  complete  the  school  course. 
Still,  the  classical  schools  feel  that  in  the  time  allowed  it  is 
impossible  to  teach  Greek  and  Roman  history  satisfactorily. 
From  a  pedagogical  stand-point  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
Jena  plan,  which  is  the  one  generally  followed  in  the  other 
German  states,  has  superior  advantages  for  the  classical 
schools.  Although  the  second  part  of  the  course  is  completed 
with  Obertertia,  it  provides  for  a  more  intensive  course  in 
the  upper  classes,  one-half  of  which  is  devoted  to  the  history 
of  Greece  and  Rome. 

The  work  of  Quarto,  begins  with  a  review  of  the  most  im- 
portant Greek  legends.     Nearly  all  schools  give  a  year  to  the 

o  v   .„..      mythology  of  Greece   and   Rome — in   Prussia, 
Subject-Matter.        J  .  ,    . 

Quinta,  and  in  other  states,  generally  Sexta. 
In  Jena,  however,  the  work  is  confined  for  the  most  part  to 
stories  from  the  Odyssey,  which  also  form  a  part  of  the  .Ger- 
man reading  course.  The  wanderings  of  Ulysses  demand  a 
careful  study  of  the  geography  of  Grecian  lands.  Maps  are 
drawn  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  and  Asia  Minor ;  the  islands 
of  the  JSgean  are  located,  and  the  classic  routes  of  travel 
in  Third  Y  compared  with  those  of  modern  times.  Then 

follows  an  outline  history  of  the  political  events 
in  Greece  between  1104  and  500  B.C.,  together  with  the  neces- 
sary changes  in  the  geographical  divisions.  The  study  of 
the  Persian  wars  brings  in  the  geography  of  Asia  and  Egypt, 


INSTRUCTION  IN  HISTORY  AND  GEOGRAPHY   305 

and  the  biographies  of  Cyrus,  Cambyses,  Darius  and  Periclee. 
The  account  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  is  accompanied  with 
a  study  of  the  geography  of  Sicily.  Then  follows  a  narrative 
of  the  events  clustering  about  the  lives  of  Socrates,  Agesilaus, 
Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas,  Demosthenes  and  Philip  of 
Macedon.  The  story  of  Alexander  the  Great,  the  division  of 
his  empire  and  its  subsequent  subjugation  to  Rome  completes 
the  historical  course  in  Grecian  history,  and  also  furnishes 
an  opportunity  for  a  review  of  the  geography  of  southwestern 
Asia.  The  work  of  the  second  semester  is  Roman  history, 
and  a  study  of  the  geography,  ancient  and  modern,  of  the 
countries  included  in  the  Roman  Empire.  The  class,  at  the 
same  time  that  it  is  studying  the  history  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
has  the  geography  of  Palestine  in  connection  with  religion, 
and  is  reading  in  German  the  Theban  legends,  stories  from 
Greek  history,  Schiller's  Cranes  of  Ibycus,  stories  from, 
Roman  history  and  travellers'  descriptions  of  Italy  and 
Athens. 

In  Untertertia  the  history  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  is 
traced  down  to  the  year  1555.  So  far  as  possible  the  social 
and  political  changes  are  treated  with  reference 

In  Fourth  Year. 

to  the  fortunes  of  the  city  of  Jena,  which  lies 
at  the  crossing  of  the  two  great  highways  contended  for  both 
by  the  Germans  and  the  Slavs.  Within  sight  of  the  town 
are  a  dozen  castles  and  strongholds,  each  of  which  has  a  story 
to  tell  of  the  struggles  of  these  races  for  supremacy.  The 
history  of  the  city  church  and  cloister,  of  the  city  hall 
(Rathaus)  and  of  the  market  dates  from  early  times,  and  il- 
lustrates the  gradual  development  of  local  self-government. 
The  founding  of  the  university  and  its  later  history  afford  a 
natural  means  of  introducing  the  study  of  the  Reformation. 
The  political  and  physical  geography  of  central  Europe  affords 
important  contributions  for  the  understanding  of  the  course 
in  mediaeval  history.  The  period  of  discovery  brings  in 
America,  South  Africa  and  Asia. 

In  Obertertia  the  chief  events  of  modern  history  from  1555 
to  the  present  time  are  considered.  It  is  the  period  of  coloniz- 

30 


306  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ation,  in  which  England  takes  a  leading  part.  Queen  Eliza- 
beth is  portrayed,  and  the  geography  of  Great  Britain  is 
in  Fifth  Year  stu(^^-  '^e  Thirty  Years'  War  brings  in 
Sweden  and  Denmark,  under  the  hero  Gustavus 
Adolphus.  The  French  influence  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  necessitates  a  study  of  the  history  of 
France  as  it  centres  in  the  career  of  Louis  XIV.  Eussia,  as 
represented  by  Peter  the  Great,  is  given  some  attention. 
The  second  semester  is  devoted  to  the  history  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  and  the  culmination  of  events  in  the  over- 
throw of  Napoleon  and  in  the  final  restoration  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire.  A  study  of  the  German  colonial  possessions, 
and  of  those  countries  enriched  by  German  immigration, 
gives  ample  opportunity  for  a  review  of  the  geography  of  the 
world.  During  this  year  the  class  reads  in  German  selections 
from  Schiller's  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  from 
his  Wilhelm  Tell,  both  of  which  are  side-lights  on  the  work 
in  history. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  concerning  the  best  meth- 
ods of  teaching  history  in  the  middle  and  upper  grades. 
Teachers  have  pointed  out  the  defects  of  the 
narrative  method,  and  maintained  that  thereby 
scholars  attain  no  power  of  independent  inves- 
tigation ;  that  even  the  faculty  of  discriminative  judgment 
is  not  properly  cultivated,  and  that  few  pupils  ever  acquire 
a  love  for  historical  reading.  Professor  Schiller,  of  Giessen,  a 
noted  writer  on  gymnasial  pedagogics,  still  holds  that  it  is 
highly  desirable  to  assign  readings  to  be  done  out  of  school 
and  to  devote  the  lesson  period  to  a  discussion  of  the  topic. 
The  Prussian  regulations,  however,  distinctly  prohibit  the 
general  adoption  of  this  method,  because  of  the  restrictions  it 
places  upon  the  free  time  of  the  pupils.  From  twenty  min- 
utes to  half  an  hour  a  day  is  all  that  a  teacher  has  a  right  to 
expect  of  his  pupils  by  way  of  home  study,  and  this  is  hardly 
sufficient  for  the  correction  of  notes  and  the  making  of  such 
maps  as  are  necessary  in  class  work.  In  fact,  there  is  but  one 
method  possible  for  the  German  teacher.  He  must  himself 


INSTRUCTION  IN  HISTORY  AND  GEOGRAPHY   307 

narrate  the  stories,  make  outlines  and  do  the  reviewing  in 
the  class. 

The  method  of  presentation  in  the  middle  grades  does  not 
differ  materially  from  that  already  described  in  the  lower 
grades.  First,  there  is  a  review  of  the  impor- 
tant events  of  past  lessons  ;  then  the  telling  of 
the  new  story,  and  its  oral  reproduction  by  the 
class  according  to  the  outline  which  the  teacher  has  devel- 
oped and  placed  upon  the  board.  Text-books  are  commonly 
used,  of  which  there  are  many  excellent  varieties.  They  are, 
however,  mere  outlines,  which  by  no  means  usurp  the  func- 
tion of  the  teacher.  They  are  hand-books  for  consultation  in 
review  and  for  fixing  lessons  already  elaborated  in  the  class. 
A  text-book  that  presumes  to  give  a  complete  account  of  the 
historical  development  of  the  period  studied  would  be  worse 
than  useless  to  the  pupil.  He  would  not  have  time  to  do  the 
required  reading,  to  say  nothing  of  sorting  out  the  important 
facts.  For  pupils'  use  a  concise  reference  book  rather  than  a 
text-book  is  required. 

The  Jena  program  for  the  final  course  is  as  follows  : 

TJNTERSECUNDA. 

History  and  Geography,  3  hours,  (a)  Review  and  contin- 
uation of  Grecian  history  down  to  338  B.C.,  with  reference 
to  the  ancient  geography  of  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor,  (b)  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  Hel- 
lenistic  Empire  down  to  its  subjugation  by 
Rome,  together  with  a  geographical  review  ;  then  a  review  of 
Roman  history  to  133  B.C.,  and  of  the  geography  of  ancient 
Italy.  Geographical  reviews  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

OBERSECUNDA. 

History  and  Geography,  3  hours,  (a)  Roman  history  from 
133  B.C.  to  375  A.D.  (b)  Mediaeval  history  to  1056  A.D. 
Geographical  reviews.  Review  of  important  dates  in  the 
world's  history. 

USTTERPRIMA. 

History  and  Geography,  3  hours,  (a)  History  of  the  pe- 
riod from  1056  to  1555.  (b)  Modern  history  from  1555  to 
1786.  Geographical  reviews. 


308  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

w 

OBERPRIMA. 

History  and  Geography.  Modern  history  from  1786  to 
1888,  with  special  attention  to  geography.  Comprehensive 
resume  of  the  historical  development  of  modern  civilization. 

The  methods  to  be  followed  in  the  upper  classes  do  not 
differ  essentially  from  those  already  outlined.  The  pupils 
are  more  mature  ;  they  have  read  more  exten- 
sively  from  both  classical  and  modern  authors, 
and  have  greater  power  in  abstract  thought. 
Nevertheless,  the  same  general  plan  of  presentation  must  be 
followed  as  in  the  lower  classes,  the  only  difference  being 
that  less  effort  is  required  to  make  the  work  interesting,  and 
more  attention  can  be  given  to  the  relations  of  cause  and  ef- 
fect. In  fact,  this  final  course  does  not  cover  much  more 
ground  than  the  one  just  finished  ;  but  it  is  treated  in  a  more 
general  way,  and  the  causes  of  political  changes  are  empha- 
sized to  the  exclusion,  in  a  degree,  of  the  descriptive  work 
which  characterizes  the  earlier  course.  The  pupils  already 
know  the  more  important  facts  ;  the  main  thing  now  is  to 
search  out  the  reasons  for  their  being.  In  Untersecunda, 
while  the  history  of  Greece  and  Home  is  being  studied,  the 
class  work  in  religion  is  concerned  with  the  apostolic  history 
and  the  founding  of  the  Christian  church.  In  Greek,  Xen- 
ophon's  Anabasis  and  selections  from  the  Odyssey  are  being 
read  ;  and  the  connection  is  maintained  throughout  the  fol- 
lowing year  by  readings  from  Herodotus.  Early  Roman  his- 
tory is  supplemented  by  reading  Cicero's  de  imp.  Cn.  Pompeii 
(alternating  with  pro  Roscio),  Vergil's  ^Eneid,  Books  I.-IIL, 
and  selections  from  Livy,  Books  I.,  II.,  III.,  V.,  VI.,  VII. 
and  IX. 

In  connection  with  later  Roman  and  mediaeval  history  to 
1056,  the  Obersecunda  class  reads  in  Latin  several  books  of 
Vergil  and  selections  from  Livy,  Books  XXI., 
XXII.,  XXV.,  XXVI.,  XXVII.  and  XXX. 
The  work  in  religion  is  confined  to  the  apos- 
tolic period  of  the  church  and  the  mission  of  Paul,  which 


INSTRUCTION  IN  HISTORY  AND  GEOGRAPHY  309 

afford  excellent  opportunity  for  bringing  together  important 
facts  in  history  arid  geography. 

In  Prima,  the  course  in  religion  develops  the  history  of 
the  church  through  the  Reformation  down  to  modern  times. 
The  class,  by  the  study  of  Nibelungenlied  in  the  original  text 
and  the  middle-high  German  literature,  which  is  a  part  of 
the  work  in  Obersecunda,  is  now  ready  to  read  the  Germania 
of  Tacitus.  And  with  this  course  the  climax  of  interest  in 
German  antiquities  is  reached.  The  gulf  between  the  pres- 
ent and  the  past  is  effectually  bridged  over ;  the  German 
school-boy  henceforth  feels  that  ancient  history  is  very  real. 

The  course  as  outlined  for  the  Jena  Gymnasium  is  perhaps 
the  best  illustration  of  recent  attempts  to  correlate  the  instruc- 
tion in  the  humanistic  subjects  in  the  secondary-school  cur- 
riculum. The  Prussian  Lehrplan  is  by  no  means  so  carefully 
adjusted  in  this  respect ;  nevertheless,  it  would  be  difficult  to 
devise  a  curriculum  for  the  German  schools,  considering  the 
available  material,  in  which  one  subject  did  not  bear  some 
relation  to  the  other  subjects  of  the  course.  In  Jena  there  is 
not  only  the  external  correlation,  but  there  is  an  even  more 
serious  attempt  to  make  the  instruction  of  the  class-room 
effective  in  more  directions  than  one.  The  Jena  3urriculum 
as  it  now  stands  is  the  result  of  many  years  of  study  on  the 
part  of  a  large  number  of  school-masters.  In  this  work,  as 
has  been  said,  Dr.  Frick  was  the  leader  ;  and  the  Jena  curricu- 
lum is  to-day  perhaps  the  best  example  of  the  fruit  of  his 
work  and  the  labour  of  his  colleagues. 

In  conclusion,  I  find  it  difficult  to  estimate  the  worth  of 
the  German  methods  of  teaching  history.  The  geographical 
instruction  has  always  seemed  to  me  most  excel- 

•  .  Criticisms. 

lent,  but  there  is  room  for  wide  differences  of 
opinion  with  regard  to  the  work  in  history.  In  certain  schools 
which  I  could  mention  the  work  is  undoubtedly  of  a  high 
order  ;  the  scholars  are  deeply  interested,  and  the  results  are 
eminently  satisfactory.  Still,  it  must  be  remembered  that  in 
many  schools — I  fear  in  the  great  majority  of  them — the  work 
is  purely  formal  and  disconnected,  unrelated  and  exceedingly 


310  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

uninteresting.  The  successful  teacher,  according  to  the  Ger- 
man method,  must  be  an  able  story-teller,  and  have  the  power 
to  stir  the  emotions  of  his  pupils  by  the  narration  of  historic 
events.  He  must  be  enthusiastic,  and  possessed  of  encyclo- 
pedic information.  When  these  conditions  are  not  fulfilled 
there  is  a  dry  recital  of  events,  which  is  followed  by  a  still 
drier  recitation  by  the  pupils.  A  few  facts  may  be  learned, 
but  so  long  as  they  are  not  related  to  other  facts  they  are  life- 
less. I  confess  to  having  heard  lessons — many  of  them — 
which  were  soporific  in  the  extreme  ;  and  so  unusual  was  it  in 
my  experience  to  find  a  good  teacher  of  history,  that  I  often 
despaired  of  seeing  the  German  system  at  its  best.  Teachers 
continually  complained  to  me,  by  way  of  excuse  for  a  poor 
showing,  that  no  time  was  allowed  for  outside  study;  and  that 
with  only  two  or  three  lessons  a  week,  it  was  impossible  to  get 
good  results  when  everything  depended  upon  the  teacher  in 
the  class. 

On  the  whole,  I  was  greatly  disappointed  in  the  practical 
working  of  the  German  methods.    Comparatively  few  teachers, 
it  seems  to  me,  have  the  ability  or  the  disposi- 

^OU  t0    treat   ^6   suli)ject   ln   tne   onty  wav  tnat 

can  bring  success.  Germans  are  not  natural 
story-tellers  ;  as  a  rule,  they  are  too  phlegmatic.  Success  for 
the  average  teacher,  therefore,  depends  upon  his  ability  to 
-ystematize  and  arrange  his  material  in  such  a  way  that  at  the 
end  of  the  course  the  pupil  has  a  definite,  closely  related  body 
of  knowledge.  Lack  of  interest  on  the  part  of  some  and  lack 
of  methodical  arrangement  are,  it  seems  to  me,  the  two  great 
factors  which  account  for  the  unsatisfactory  results  in  the 
teaching  of  history  in  the  secondary  schools. 

It  is  still  a  fact,  however,  after  all  is  said,  that  the  German 
students  who  do  their  work  at  all  satisfactorily  generally  have 

upon  the  completion  of  their  course  a  very  corn- 
Results.  .        .        .         „    .  . ,,    .  .  m, 

prehensive  view  of  the  worlds  history.     I  hey 

are  familiar  with  the  chief  events  in  history  from  the  Trojan 
war  to  the  accession  of  William  II.  ;  they  have  traced  the 
development  of  political  geography  for  some  three  thousand 


INSTRUCTION  IN  HISTORY  AND   GEOGRAPHT     311 

years  up  to.  the  present ;  they  know  the  topography  of  the 
countries  in  which  the  great  historical  scenes  have  been  en- 
acted ;  they  know  something  of  the  physical  conditions  which 
have  determined  the  economic  characteristics  of  various  na- 
tions ;  they  have  been  led  to  notice  the  changes  that  have 
taken  place  in  historical  times  in  the  relations  of  the  indus- 
trial life  to  the  family,  of  the  family  to  the  community  and 
of  the  community  to  the  state.  Finally,  the  influence  of  art 
and  literature  upon  the  development  of  civilization  is  tolerably 
clear  in  their  minds.  They  may  be  deficient  in  the  ability  to 
make  independent  historical  investigations,  or  even  be  un- 
able to  read  intelligently  certain  historical  works  of  a  tech- 
nical nature;  but  they  have,  nevertheless,  what  maybe  called 
a  historical  instinct.  They  may  not  be  able  to  account  for 
the  faith  that  is  in  them,  but  they  have  the  faith  notwith- 
standing. Such  students,  when  they  go  up  to  the  university, 
very  quickly  become  acquainted  with  the  methods  of  doing 
research  work  ;  they  easily  adapt  themselves  to  circumstances, 
and  become  what  may  be  rightfully  termed  students  of  his- 
tory. It  should  be  understood,  however,  that  the  patient 
industry,  the  dispassionate  judgment  and  breadth  of  scholar- 
ship that  are  exhibited  by  the  typical  German  historians  can 
scarcely  be  credited  to  the  study  of  history  in  the  secondary 
schools.  I  am  disposed  to  believe  that  the  courses  in  Greek 
and  Latin,  in  German  and  in  religion,  furnish  the  muscle  and 
sinew  ;  the  historical  course  builds  merely  the  skeleton. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — Richter,  Systematische  Gliederung  des  Unter- 
richtsstoffes  in  der  neueren  Geschichte,  in  Lehrproben  und  Lehi  gauge,  1897; 
Haunak,  Methodik  des  Unterrichts  in  der  Geschichte,  Vienna,  1891;  Jager, 
Bemerkungen  liber  den  Geschichtlichen  Unterricht,  2  ed.,  Wiesbaden,  1887; 
Peachel,  Die  Erdkunde  als  Unterrichts- Gegenstand,  in  Deutscher  Viertel- 
jahresschrift,  1868:  Delitsch,  Beitrdge  zur  Methodik  des  geographischen  Un- 
terrichts, in  Xene  Jahrbiicher  fiir  Philologie  und  Padagogik,  1881 ;  Matzat, 
Zeichnende  Erdkunde,  Berlin,  1879;  Oberlander,  Der  geographische  Un- 
terricht  nach  den  Grundsatzen  der  Ritterschen  Schnle,  5  ed.,  Grimma,  1893 ; 
Tromnau,  Der  Unterricht  in  der  Erdkunde  in  seiner  geschichtlichen  Ent- 
wicklung,  unter  Beriicksichtigung  der  neueste  Reformbestrebungen,  Halle, 
1893;  Hand-hooks  of  Baumeister  and  Wychgram  and  Encyclopedia*  of 
Scbmid  and  Rein. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

INSTRUCTION  IN  MATHEMATICS 

THE  school  reforms  consequent  upon  Prussia's  defeat  in  the 

Napoleonic  wars  mark  the  beginning  of  serious  mathematical 

study  in   the  Gymnasium.     Hitherto,  two  to 

Development  three  recitations  a  week  had  been  considered 
ample  time  for  a  subject  so  little  in  harmony 
with  humanistic  ideals ;  10  to  14  hours  weekly  were  not 
too  many  for  Latin  and  Greek.  But  in  the  program  of 
1816  mathematics  was  made  a  main  subject  alongside  of  the 
ancient  classics  and  of  equal  worth  with  them.  The  course 
led  up  to  and  included  theory  of  equations,  chance,  the  ele- 
ments of  analytic  geometry  and  mechanics.  In  zeal  to  out- 
do France,  the  reformers  had  been  too  radical  for  the  school- 
men. In  1827  the  time  was  reduced  from  6  hours  a  week 
to  4.  The  programs  of  1837  and  1856  were  still  less  liberal, 
allotting  to  Quinta,  Quarta  and  Tertia  only  3  periods.  In 
1882  only  two  classes  were  left  with  so  few  as  3  recitations 
a  week  ;  the  total  week-hours  were  34.  The  program  of  1882 
decreased  the  week-hours  for  mathematics  in  the  Realgym- 
nasium  from  47  to  44,  and  in  1892  a  still  further  reduction 
of  2  hours  a  week  was  made.  The  Olerreahchulen,  with 
French  and  English  in  place  of  the  classics,  but  with  a  nine- 
year  course  as  in  the  Gymnasien,  have  at  present  47  week- 
hours  of  mathematics. 

Mathematics  as  taught  in  the  best  German  schools  is  a  unit. 
If  I  refer  to  the  sub-courses  independently,  for  convenience's 
sake,  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  are  more  than  parallel 
— they  are  interlaced  and  interwoven  to  a  degree  that  makes 

312 


INSTRUCTION  IN  MATHEMATICS  313 

it  difficult  to  separate  them.  A  further  difficulty  arises  from 
the  differences  in  the  secondary  schools  themselves.  They 
have  not  the  same  courses,  nor  a  common  aim. 
From  a  quantitative  point  of  view,  the  Real- 
gymnasium  stands  midway  between  the  two 
extremes ;  qualitatively,  it  may  be  questioned  if  it  does 
not  rank  at  the  head  in  mathematics.  But  for  the  sake  of  a 
norm,  it  may  be  well  to  take  a  middle  ground.  I  have  chosen, 
therefore,  to  describe  the  course  of  the  Realgymnasium  in 
Cassel,  Dr.  Wittich,  director — one  of  the  best  schools  in  the 
kingdom,  and  renowned  as  the  Alma  Mater  of  Prince  Henry  of 
Prussia.  For  illustrations  of  method  I  shall  draw  freely 
from  my  experiences  in  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  schools, 
and  it  goes  without  saying  that  whatever  of  criticism  I  may 
indulge  in  should  not  be  construed  as  reflections  on  the 
Cassel  institution.  Indeed,  I  am  obliged  to  go  elsewhere  for 
my  material,  as  during  my  stay  in  Cassel  the  celebration  of 
the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  the  founding  of  the  school 
was  of  greater  interest  to  the  pupils  (and  to  the  visitor  ?) 
than  the  daily  routine  of  the  class-room.  Its  curriculum  fol- 
lows necessarily  the  last  Prussian  program ;  and  so  far  as 
this  discriminates  against  Realgymnasien — and  it  has  cast  a 
cloud  over  them  all — in  so  far  does  this  school  suffer  with  the 
rest.  For  this  reason  one  often  finds  the  best  results  in 
mathematics  in  other  German  states.  Prussia 
is  not  altogether  Germany  in  educational  mat-  school 
ters  ;  yet,  from  force  of  circumstances,  the 
smaller  states  follow  her  leadership,  though  at  a  respectful 
distance.  The  course  of  1882,  which  was  willingly  adopted 
in  the  southern  states,  gave  advantages  which  non-Prussians 
are  loath  to  yield  ;  and  while  the  Prussian  reforms  have  been 
followed  to  a  certain  extent,  it  has  been  done  under  protest. 
The  attitude  of  the  southern  leader  is  happily  put  in  the  fol- 
lowing words,  addressed  to  me  in  criticism  of  recent  changes  : 
"  I  cannot  bring  myself  blindly  to  admire  a  thing  merely  for 
the  sake  of  its  coming  from  Berlin."  The  Saxon  ministry  has 
especially  favoured  the  Realgymnasium,  and  so  have  most  of 


314:  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

the  duchies.  The  Weimar  Realgymnasium  has  a  most  enviable 
reputation,  and  to  its  director,  Dr.  Wernekke,  I  am  indebted 
for  many  favours.  Here  the  good  points  of  the  German  sys- 
tem are  to  be  found  at  their  best,  and  the  course  is  not  too 
much  "reformed." 

A  boy  on  entering  Sexta  at  nine  years  of  age  is  expected  to 
bring  with  him  from  his  three-year  preparatory  course  the 
ability  to  add,  subtract,  multiply  and  divide  simple  whole 
numbers.  For  the  lower  grades  the  Cassel  course  is  as  fol- 
lows : 1 

SEXTA. 

Rechnen,  4  hours.     Extended  knowledge  of  numbers  from 

1-100,  especially  division  of  numbers  by  smaller  numbers  and 

factoring.    System  of  tens.    Numeration.    Rep- 

OU1Grades  W  "  e^^ion  of  the  four  fundamental  principles,  with 

abstract  whole  numbers.  Weights,  measures  and 

money.     Reduction  of  complex  numbers,  and  in  connection 

therewith  the  simplest  tasks  in  decimal  fractions.     Text-book, 

Bohme's  Uebungsbuch,  VIII. 

QUINTA. 

Rechnen,  4  hours.  Preparations  for  study  of  fractions. 
Common  and  decimal  fractions.  Rule-of-three.  Text-book, 
Bohme's,  IX. 

QUARTA. 

I.  Rechnen,  2  hours.     Review  of  fractions.     Rule-of-three 
with  whole  numbers  and  fractions.     Profit  and  loss.     Inter- 
est, discount  and  partnership.     Text-book,  Bohme's,  XII. 

II.  Plane  Geometry,  2  hours.     Introductory  course  in  ob- 
ject-lessons.    Angles,  parallel  lines,  triangles,  quadrilaterals. 
Simple  constructions.     Text-book,  Koppe's  Planimetrie. 

Arithmetik,  the  theory  of  numbers,  includes  both  reckoning 
with  definite  numbers  (Rechnen}  and  with  numbers  in  the 
abstract.  Algebra  is  the  theory  of  equations.  The  work  of 
the  lower  grades,  therefore,  is  with  Rechnen — practical  arith- 

1  The  Weimar  Realgymnasium  has  five  periods  a  week  in  Sexta  and 
Qiiarta.  By  teaching  simple  rule-of-three  in  Sexta,  time  enough  is  gained 
for  one  hour  a  week  of  geometrical  object-lessons  in  Quinta. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  MATHEMATICS  315 

metic.  The  aim  is  to  secure  "accuracy  and  facility  in  opera- 
tions with  figures,"  and  to  lay  the  foundation  for  future 
study.  The  first  desideratum  is  favoured  by  ex- 
traneous circumstances.  Classes  usually  num-  Teachin°f 
her  thirty  to  forty  pupils.  Recitation-rooms  are 
comparatively  small.  One  blackboard,  and  that  a  small  one 
behind  the  teacher's  desk,  must  suffice  for  the  needs  of  the 
class.  An  exceptional  arrangement  is  to  have  two  such 
boards  balanced  on  pulleys,  or  a  second  board  mounted  on  an 
easel  nearer  the  pupils.  There  are  neither  slates  nor  paper 
for  rough  work.  All  reckoning  must  be  done  on  the  board, 
in  the  exercise  books  which  are  inspected  by  the  teacher  or 
— in  the  head.  The  last,  as  the  path  of  least  resistance,  is 
followed  by  the  average  boy,  notwithstanding  his  natural 
prejudices  against  thinking  for  himself.  Whether  these  cir- 
cumstances be  cause  or  effect,  I  cannot  say  ;  but  I  suspect  they 
are  partly  both.  The  German  teacher  will  tell  you,  however, 
that  "  years  ago  "  it  was  the  custom  to  assign  long  lessons  to 
be  worked  out  at  home  ;  that,  to  secure  a  reasonable  percent- 
age of  correct  answers,  rules  and  copies  were  invented  ;  but, 
he  will  add,  the  process  was  purely  mechanical.  To-day 
the  ideal  is  that  every  step  in  advance  shall  be  taken  in  the 
class-room  ;  that  there  shall  be  but  one  step  at  a  time,  and 
that  all  shall  take  that  step  at  the  same  time.  This  forbids 
independent  home  study  ;  it  limits  the  master's  work  to 
teaching. 

A  recitation  opens  with  questions,  rapidly  put,  on  the  review 
leading  up  to  the  work  of  the  day.  Answers  must  be  short, 
concise  and  complete  sentences.  New  prin- 

Oral  Work. 

ciples  are  developed  inductively,  if  possible. 
A  boy  goes  to  the  board — why  more  than  one  board  ? — and 
writes  a  problem  as  read  to  him  by  another  boy  or  by  the 
teacher.  Then  more  questions  to  the  class.  The  pupil  at 
the  board  merely  registers  the  progress ;  he  may  be  quizzed 
with  the  rest,  and  if  he  has  suggestions  to  make  he  may  vol- 
unteer in  the  usual  way — by  raising  the  hand — and  await  the 
master's  recognition.  Sometimes,  if  the  problem  is  important, 


316  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

the  work  is  erased  and  another  boy  performs  the  same  opera- 
tion, recounting  each  step  aloud  while  the  class  copy  it  into 
their  exercise  books.  So  goes  the  hour.  The  proportion  of 
time  given  to  written  work  as  compared  with  the  questions 
asked  and  answered  is  not  far  from  1 :  5,  so  great  is  the  stress 
put  upon  oral  demonstration.  The  home  work  is  of  the  same 
nature — generally  the  identical  problems,  if  not  already  writ- 
ten out ;  but  the  task  must  not  take  more  than  half  an  hour 
of  the  pupil's  free  time.  A  special  exercise  to  be  done  at 
home  may  be  required  not  oftener  than  once  a  month.  If 
new  problems  are  set,  all  inherent  difficulties  must  be  pre- 
viously cleared  up  and  sifted  in  class.  The  pupil  is  not  to 
experiment,  nor  work  in  the  dark. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  course  particular  stress  is  put 
upon  facility  in  mental  calculation.     Practice  is  daily  afforded 

in  the  ordinary  work  of  the  class-room,  but 
Calculation      special  drill  is  given  with  each  lesson  in  the 

lower  grades.  At  first  simple  whole  numbers 
are  employed,  but  in  Quinta  the  work  has  so  far  progressed 
that  numbers  of  two  and  three  digits  are  freely  used.  Such 
work,  to  be  of  value,  must  be  done  quickly ;  the  answer 
should  be  ready  immediately  on  conclusion  of  the  statement. 
From  twelve  such  problems  given  in  one  recitation,  I  select 
at  random  three:  (1)  4,1  +  0,9-4,9  +  0,9=?;  (2)  1,2  +  3,4 
xlO=?;  (3)  0,9  +  2,4  +  3,1-8=?  Such  tasks  are  rendered 
the  more  difficult  by  the  German  way  of  reading  decimals — 
thus  in  (1) :  "  Four-comma-one,  plus  naught-comma-nine, 
minus  four-comma-nine,  plus  naught-comma-nine,"  etc. 
This  reading  of  figures  and  points  in  succession,  though  not 
expressly  sanctioned,  seems  to  be  connived  at  in  all  parts  of 
Germany  from  the  common  schools  to  the  universities ; 
illogical  as  it  may  be,  it  seems  to  the  foreigner  a  sensible  reac- 
tion against  the  laws  of  the  grammarians.  The  next  step 
brings  in  the  blackboard  ;  the  problem  is  written  out,  thus  : 
(25,5  +  27,45  +  31,55):  5=  ?;  but  the  solution  is  given  orally. 
How  far  and  in  what  lines  these  methods  shall  be  developed 
lies  wholly  with  the  teacher.  In  geometry,  too,  there  is  ample 


INSTRUCTION  IN  MATHEMATICS  317 

field.  A  good  Tertianer,  I  am  told,  should  be  able  to  demon- 
strate the  Pythagorean  proposition  in  his  head,  following 
any  designation  of  lines  and  angles  that  may  be  given  him.  In 
arithmetic,  the  multiplication  table  may  be  taught  as  high  as 
the  20's,  after  which  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  make  all  neces- 
sary combinations.  But  in  explaining  his  methods  to  me  an 
excellent  teacher  made  this  remark  :  "  It  is  well  that  a  pupil 
should  be  familiar  with  short  methods,  and  be  able  to  reckon 
rapidly  in  his  head  ;  but  it  is  better  to  know  that  18  times  27 
is  the  same  as  18  times  20,  plus  18  times  7,  than  to  perform 
the  operation  mechanically."  Whatever  the  methods  in  men- 
tal arithmetic  may  be,  the  results  in  most  German  schools 
are  admirable. 

Some  of  the  best  schools  are  making  a  trial  of  the  so- 
called  "  Austrian  methods  "of  reckoning.     II- 

Austrian  Methods. 

lustrations    follow  (the   figures   here  given   I 

have  copied  from  actual  class  work  ;  no  others  were  used) : 

(1)  Subtraction — 

954  Boy  says,    "  One  and    three  make  four 

— 761  (writes  3) ;  six  and  nine  make  fifteen  (writes 

9) ;  one  (to  carry),  seven  and  one  make  nine 
193  (writes  1)." 

(2}  Multiplication — 

„„_  ft_      Q-C_  o  Multiply  first  by  8,  then  by  7,  and  then  by 

5,  adding  to  this  product  the  partial  products 
already  found ;  write  only  complete  sum  in 
last  case-  The  final  operation  is  as  follows  : 
5  x  7—35  (write  5) ;  5  x  6+3  (to  carry)  +9= 
42  (write  2>;  5x5+4+6+6=41  (write  1); 
5  x  2+4+9+3=26  (write  6),  etc. 

(3)  Division— 

427654  :  145=2949,3. 

1376  First  figure  of  quotient  is  2.     Then  2x5+ 

715  7=17  (write  7);  2x4+1  (to  carry)  +3  =  12 

1354  (write  3);  2x1  +  1  +  1=4  (write  1).     Bring 

490  down  next  figure  (6)  of  dividend,  and  con- 
tinue as  before. 
55  rem. 

(4)  Square-Root — 

>y/42  |  76  |  54= 653,9. 

6    76:125  The   methods,  as  will  be  seen,  are  the 

5154  :  1303  same  as  in  division. 

124500 : 13069 


318  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

After  a  close  inspection  of  pupils'  exercises,  I  cannot  say 
that  the  chances  of  error  are  greater  than  with  the  usual  way. 
It  reduces  the  written  work  to  a  minimum,  and  decidedly 
increases  the  rapidity  of  computation.  It  is  well  worth  a 
trial.  Schools  which  have  adopted  it  show  no  inclination  to 
go  back  to  the  old  methods. 

The  rule-of-three  plays  an  important  part  in  Quinta  and 
Quqrta.  The  easier  problems  are  stated  and  solved  as  fol- 
lows : 

(a)  Statement — 

If  25  kg  of  x  cost  53,45  m.,  what  will  155  kg  cost? 

(b)  Solution — 

25  kg  cost  53,45  m.,  155kg  cost? 

150  "      "  320,70  " 
5  "      "    10,69  " 


155  kg  cost  331,39  m. 

Rather  more  is  made  of  compound  proportion  than  might 
be  expected  from  the  practical  nature  of  the  course  ;  the 
method  most  frequently  used  is  as  follows  : 

(a)  Statement  — 

A  canal  245  m  long,  3,3  m  deep,  7  m  wide,  is  built  by 
140  men  working  546  days,  at  7£  hours  a  day  ;  what  is  the 
length  of  another  canal,  5  m  deep,  8,2  m  wide,  on  which  182 
men  are  employed  324  days,  working  8£  hrs.  a  day  ? 

(b)  Solution  — 

140  men  in  546  d.  of  7|  h.  make  3,3m  d.     7m  w.  245m  1. 
182    "     "  324     "     8fr  "       "        6    "  8,2     "    x. 

245  x  182  x  324  x  60  x  33  x  70 


140  x  546  x  45  x  50  x  82 

Say,  —  If  245  m  be  done  by  140  men,  one  man  will  do  the  140th  part, 
182  men  will  do  182  times  as  much  ;  viz.  in  546  days  —  hence  in  one  day 
the  546th  part,  in  324  days  324  times  as  much  ;  viz,  in  7£  hrs.  (45-6)  —  hence 
in  1-6  hr.  the  45th  part,  in  $1  hrs.  (50-6)  50  times  as  much  ;  viz.  33-10  m 
deep  —  hence  if  1-10  m  deep  33  times  as  much,  if  50-10  m  deep  the  50th 
part,  etc. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  MATHEMATICS  319 

The  problems  of  commercial  arithmetic  are  solved  in  the 
same  form.     Here  is  a  task  in  interest: 

(a)  Statement — 

What  is  the  interest  on  450  m.  for  2  yrs.  3  mos.  and  10 
^s.  at  5  per  cent.  ? 

(b)  Solution — 

100  m.  give    5        m.  int.  in  1  yr. 
450  "      "     22,50    "     "     "       " 


450  "  "  45,00  "  "  "  2  yrs. 
u  "  "  5,625  "  "  "  3  mos. 
"  "  "  ,625  "  "  "  10  ds. 

450  m.  give  51,25  m.  int.  in  2  yrs.  3  mos.  10  ds. 

The  greatest  difficulties  of  the  lower  grades  are  in  common 
fractions;  but  from  the  start  every  effort  is  made  to  keep 
within  the  pupils'  sphere.  When  a  boy  knows 

,,        ,f  .   .  f  .,  .f  Fractions. 

what  the  division  of  a  unit  means,  the  term 
''fraction"  has  for  him  a  tangible  reality,  a  definite  value. 
Beyond  this  limit  the  German  teacher  hesitates  to  go.  The 
theory  may  best  be  taught  with  numbers  not  too  large ;  and  as 
for  pure  practice,  there  is  enough  of  that  in  other  connections. 
The  main  thing  is  to  know  the  value  of  a  fraction  both  in 
concrete  terms  and  in  its  decimal  form,  and  to  realize  that  in 
its  treatment  only  familiar  principles  are  employed.  The 
prevailing  use  of  the  decimal  system  of  weights,  measures  and 
money  makes  the  transition  comparatively  easy.  By  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  work  is  done  orally,  i.e.,  without  book, 
paper  or  blackboard. 

The  introductory  course  in  geometry  is  given  by  most  non- 
Prussian  schools  in  Quinta,  one  period  a  week.  The  object  is 
to  familiarize  the  pupils  with  the  essentials  of 
geometrical  form — "enough  to  get  them  look- 
ing  at  things  from  a  geometrical  point  of  view/' 
The  object-lessons  begin  with  solids,  which  are  handled,  de- 
scribed and  measured.  Thus  arise  correct  ideas  of  surfaces, 
lines  and  points  and  their  relations.  It  is  but  a  step  to  the 
drawing  of  figures,  and  this  in  turn  forms  a  basis  for  the  sys- 


320  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

tematic  study  of  plane  geometry.  Formal  theorems  are  un- 
necessary. A  long  series  of  constructions  follows  the  demon- 
stration of  such  statements  as  these  :  "  The  base  angles  of  an 
equilateral  triangle  are  equal";  "The  angles  of  a  triangle 
make  two  right  angles " ;  "  Diagonals  of  rectangles  are 
equal "  ;  "  A  tangent  stands  at  right  angles  to  its  radius/'  etc. 
Such  are  the  concrete  methods  of  the  common  schools  (  Volks- 
schulen);  and  there  is  a  party  of  schoolmen,  including  the 
Herbartians,1  who  would  carry  them  still  further  in  the  sec- 
ondary schools.  Their  success  is  not  marked,  but  to  the 
movement  may  be  accredited  certain  tendencies  which  are  be- 
coming apparent  even  in  the  most  conservative  circles.  The 
school  that  would  educate  its  pupils,  it  is  said,  has  no  use  for 
what  is  purely  theoretical  or  abstractly  mathematical.  The  uni- 
versities are  for  specialists  ;  the  higher  schools  stand  for  general 
culture.  "  Were  Shakespeare,  Schiller  and  Goethe  skilled  in 
logarithms  and  equations  of  the  third  degree?"  The  mathema- 
tician may  be  Jew  or  Gentile,  materialist  or  idealist ;  it  is  not 
what  he  thinks,  but  how  he  thinks,  that  is  of  concern. 

I  have  sketched  the  mathematical  work  of  the  secondary 
schools  to  a  point  commensurate  with  the  beginning  of  the 
American  high-school  coarse.  The  next  step,  following  the 
standard  of  the  Cassel  Realgymnasium,  is  as  follows  : 2 

UNTERTERTIA. 

I.  Geometry,  2  hours.     Theory  of  the  triangle,  polygon 
course  in      and  circle.    Equality  of  figures.    Constructions. 
Middle  Grades.    Text-book,  Koppe's  Planimeterie. 

1  See  Shultze's  Deutsche  Erziehung,  pp.  278-79. 

*  The  Weimar  course  is  as  follows  :  Untertertia,  5  hours.  Commer- 
cial arithmetic.  Theorems  of  sum,  difference  and  product.  The  circle. 
Equality  of  figures.  Proportion.  —  Obertertia,  5  hours.  Compound  divi- 
sion. Factoring.  Equations  of  1st  and  2d  degree  with  one  unknown. 
Square-root.  Similarity  and  measurement  of  figures.  Algebraic  geome- 
try.—  Untersecunda,  5  hours.  Plane  geometry  concluded.  Solid  geom- 
etry. Powers,  roots  and  logarithms.  Equations  of  1st  degree  with  more 
than  one  unknown  quantity,  and  of  2d  degree  with  one  unknown.  (Spe- 
cial tasks  monthly.) 


INSTRUCTION  IN  MATHEMATICS  321 

II.  Arithmetic,  2  hours.     Reckoning  with  abstract  quan- 
tities.   Equations  of  first  degree  with  one  unknown  quantity. 
Text-book,  Heis's  Sammlung  von  Auf^aotn  aus  der  Allge- 
meinen  Arithmotik,  §§  1-25  ;  61-63. 

III.  Rechnen,  1  hour.     Commercial  arithmetic  continued. 

OBERTERTIA. 

I.  Geometry,  3  hours.     Reviews.    Proportion.    Similarity 
of  figures.     Relations  and  contents  of  rectilinear  figures  and 
circles.     Pythagorean  proposition.     Text-book,  Koppe's. 

II.  Arithmetic  and  Algebra.  2  hours.     Review  and  exten- 
sion of  work  of  Illb.      Thecry  of  proportion,  powers  and 
roots.     Equations  of  first  degree  with  more  than  one  un- 
known quantity,  and  simple  quadratic  equations  with   one 
unknown.     Text-book,  Heis's. 

UNTERSECUNDA. 

I.  Geometry  and  Trigonometry,  3    hours.      Elements  of 
trigonometry  ;  computation  of  triangles.     The  most  impor- 
tant propositions.     Solid  geometry  of  the  plane  and  straight 
line  ;  simple  bodies  and  computation  of  dimensions,  surface 
and  contents. 

II.  Arithmetic  and  Algebra,  2  hours.  Theory  of  logarithms, 
with  practice  in  logarithmic  reckoning.    Quadratic  equations. 
Text-book,  Heis's. 

The  geometry  of  the  middle  grades  presents  no  striking 
peculiarities  of  method,  as  I  have  observed,  beyond  those 
common  to  the  mathematical  instruction  in  all 

•n      T  i  /?    j  Geometry. 

classes.  Euclid  seems  to  find  no  greater  recog- 
nition here  than  in  America  ;  the  German  explanation  is 
that  the  great  Alexandrian  wrote  for  men,  not  boys.  The 
four  years'  course  in  plane  geometry  gives  ample  time,  not 
only  for  thorough  grounding  in  the  theory,  but  also  for  a  va- 
riety of  practical  applications  impossible  in  a  shorter  course 
or  under  a  plan  which  does  not  provide  for  simultaneous  ex- 
ercise in  arithmetic,  algebra  and  elementary  trigonometry. 

The  course  in  arithmetic  and  algebra  is  practically  a  course 
in  Heis's  Collection.  The  book  seems  to  be  everywhere  used, 
either  as  text-book  or  for  reference.  Since  its  first  appear- 
ance, in  1837,  there  have  been  some  ninety  editions,  in  all 

91 


322  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

over  270,000  copies.  The  influence  of  this  book — the  work  of 
a  noted  mathematician  and  astronomer — upon  the  teaching 
of  two  generations  is  clearly  demonstrable,  and 
to  it  may  be  ascribed  many  of  the  peculiarities 
in  German  methods.  It  contains  no  definitions, 
no  rules  and  but  very  few  typical  solutions.  Its  strength  lies 
in  the  systematic  gradation  of  examples  and  problems,  from 
the  rudiments  of  addition  to  the  involved  types  of  equations 
of  the  higher  degrees.  The  world  over  one  will  scarcely  find 
four  hundred  pages  of  material  more  suggestive 

Text-Books. 

in  treatment  or  richer  in  detail  than  this  col 
lection  for  use  in  the  secondary  schools  of  Germany  and  Aus- 
tria. There  are  many  other  text-books,  some  of  them  most 
excellent,  as  Bardey's,  for  instance  —  perhaps  better  than 
Heis's — but  to  a  striking  degree  they  are  all  modelled  after 
the  master-work.  In  describing  the  first  215  pages  of  the 
book,  the  work  of  the  middle  grades  is  described.  Its  rich- 
ness and  variety  is  apparent  from  the  presentation  in  this 
space  of  over  2,700  examples,  of  which  some  700  are  practical 
problems.  The  number  actually  used  by  any  one  class  is  rel- 
atively very  small. 

The  needs  of  the  many  who  do  not  continue  their  schooling 
beyond  Untersecunda  demand  a  wider  range  of  study  in  the 
middle  grades  than  would  doubtless  be  the 
case  were  Oberprima  the  Mecca  for  all.  Yet 
at  every  step  the  ideal  is  that  theory  and  prac- 
tice shall  be  united ;  neither  factor  may  be  sacrificed  to  the 
other.  The  conceptions  underlying  the  theory  of  logarithms 
are  not  less  important  than  skill  in  manipulating  them  ;  the 
ability  to  think  even  a  short  problem  clearly  to  its  conclusion 
is  better  than  occasional  success  in  finding  ''the  answer"  to 
problems  intricate  and  confusing  to  the  last  degree.  There 
is  no  greater  danger  in  teaching  than  in  overestimating  the 
pupil's  strength.  Accuracy  and  facility  in  calculation  and 
inference  depend  far  more  upon  right  thinking  than  upon 
correct  writing.  The  mechanical  skill  necessary  to  note 
properly  on  paper  or  blackboard  the  essential  headings  of  a 


INSTRUCTION  IN  MATHEMATICS  323 

mathematical  demonstration  is  easily  acquired,  when  it  is  clear 
what  is  to  be  done.  It  is  right  thinking,  then,  that  is  to  be 
emphasized  ;  correct  writing  follows  as  a  result.  Every  task 
that  invites  purely  mechanical  treatment,  every  problem  too 
difficult  for  oral  analysis,  is  a  step  in  the  wrong  direction. 

For  the  upper  classes  of  the  Cassel  Realgymnasium  the  fol- 
lowing courses  are  prescribed  : 1 

OBERSECUNDA. 

I.  Geometry   and    Trigonometry,    3    hours.     Plane   trig- 
onometry   and    plane    geometry    reviewed   and    concluded. 
Solid  geometry.    Practical  applications.     Text-  course  in  upper 
books,  Koppe's  ;  Gauss'  Logarithmic  Tables.  Grades. 

II.  Arithmetic  and  Algebra,  2  hours.     Arithmetical  and 
geometrical  series.    Compound  interest  and  annuities.    Quad- 
ratic equations   with   more   unknowns.      Permutations  and 
combinations  ;  binomial  theorem  applied  to  positive  whole  ex- 
ponents.   Text-book,  Heis's. 

UNTERPRIMA. 

I.  Geometry  and  Trigonometry,  3  hours.     Solid  geometry 
continued.     Theory  of  plane  and  spherical  angles.     Spherical 
trigonometry  and  its  application  to  mathematical  geography. 
Conic  sections.     Text-book,  Koppe's. 

II.  Arithmetic  and  Algebra,  2  hours.     Continued  fractions 
and  applications.    Arithmetical  series  of  second  order.    Cubic 
equations.      Problems  of  maxima  and  minima.     Reviews. 
Text-book,  Heis's. 

OBERPRIMA. 

I.  Geometry,  3  hours.     Solid  geometry  reviewed  and  con- 
cluded.     Analytic  geometry.      Problems   in   mathematical 
geography.     Geometrical  drawing. 

II.  Arithmetic  and  Algebra,  2  hours.     Functions  and  ap- 

1  Weimar  course  :  Obersecunda,  5  hoars.  Solid  geometry.  Equations 
of  1st  and  2d  degrees  with  more  unknowns.  Determinants.  Arithmetical 
and  geometrical  series.  Compound  interest  and  annuities.  (Special  tasks 
monthly.) — Primes,  5  hours.  Permutations  and  combinations.  Chance. 
Binomial  theorem.  Series — exponential,  logarithmic,  sine  and  cosine. 
Analytic  geometry  of  the  plane.  (Special  tasks  monthly.)  Perspective 
drawing  and  shading.  Map  projection. 


324  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

plications  to  higher  equations,  especially  those  of  third  de- 
gree. Exponential,  logarithmic  and  sine  and  cosine  series. 
Practical  applications.  Text-books  by  Koppe,  Heis,  and 
Gauss. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  dwell  on  details  which  may  be  found 
in  practice  in  any  good  American  school.  For  this  reason 
the  mere  statement  of  what  is  done  in  the  upper 
grades  is  sufficient.  It  is  of  more  interest  to 
know  in  how  far  these  courses  are  actually  fol- 
lowed, and  with  what  success.  And  here's  the  rub.  No  one 
school,  no  single  type  of  schools,  can  adequately  represent 
the  work  of  all  ;  and  yet  a  norm  of  some  kind  is  necessary. 
The  Oberrealschulen  are  too  few  in  number  to  set  a  standard  ; 
and,  besides,  their  material  is  not  the  best.  The  ambitious 
parent  is  prejudiced  in  favour  of  the  Gymnasium — the  door 
to  all  that  is  desirable  in  civil  and  professional  life  ;  but  if  the 
boy  cannot  get  on  there,  the  Realgymnasium  and  Realscliule 
are  next  on  the  list.  And,  011  the  other  hand,  many  classical 
schools  make  a  farce  of  mathematics  ;  the  better  the  classics, 
the  worse  the  mathematics.  The  gymnasial  course  is  con- 
cluded with  quadratics  and  binomial  theorem,  the  elements 
of  solid  geometry  and  plane  trigonometry.  But,  other  things 
equal,  the  demands  on  the  gymnasial  master  are  as  great  as 
in  the  Real-schools,  owing  to  the  restricted  number  of  reci- 
tations— four  a  week,  save  in  Tertia,  where  only  three  are 
given.  To  overcome  this  difficulty,  some  teachers  prefer  to 
divide  the  time  of  each  recitation  equally  between  algebra  and 
geometry.  The  objections  are  at  once  apparent.  But,  ham- 
pered as  the  gymnasial  teachers  are  in  many  ways,  I  have 
been  surprised  to  see  how  successfully  the  best  of  them 
master  their  environment.  I  am  convinced,  however,  that 
the  conditions  which  determine  the  highest  results  in  mathe- 
matics are  to  be  found  in  the  Realgymnasium-  of  wow-Prussian 
states. 

Pupils  are  promoted  from  class  to  class  on  the  advice  of  the 
teacher.  He  has  for  his  guidance  the  marks  of  the  regular 
recitations,  the  pupil's  note-books  and  the  monthly  tasks  done 


INSTRUCTION  IN  MATHEMATICS  325 

<»e  borne.  Written  examinations  are  held  in  some  schools 
about  once  a  month,  the  regular  recitation  period  being  used 
for  the  purpose  ;  but,  so  far  as  I  have  learned, 
the  practice  is  not  general.  The  final  examina- 
tion  of  the  course  is  both  written  and  oral,1 
the  latter  being  held  by  the  master  in  the  presence  of  a  com- 
mittee of  his  colleagues  and  the  inspector,  Oberschulrat,  of 
the  province.  In  both  the  written  and  the  oral  examination 
mathematics  is  considered  a  main  subject.  In  Real-schools 
the  test  is  undoubtedly  efficacious,  and  the  results  accepted  as 
they  stand  ;  but  everywhere  gymnasial  teachers  are  outspoken 
against  the  slight  put  upon  their  efforts  under  cover  of  these 
examinations.  I  am  told  that  it  really  makes  little  differ- 
ence whether  or  no  a  boy  is  proficient  in  mathematics,  if  he 
knows  his  classics.  The  absence  of  an  exact  marking  sys- 
tem forces  the  teacher  of  mathematics  to  join  issues  of  judg- 
ment with  his  philological  colleagues  ;  in  questions  of  pupils' 
maturity  his  opinion  has  small  weight.  The  average  boy 

1  I  give  herewith  the  final  written  tests  tor  the  Realgymnasien  of  Cassel 
and  Weimar  at  Easter,  1894 : 

CASSEL  :  Time,  five  hours. — (1)  A  sphere  with  radius  r  =  15  is  cut  by  a 
plane  a  into  two  parts,  so  that  the  entire  surface  of  the  one  holds  the  rela- 
tion to  the  other  of  ra  :  n  =  3  :  2.  What  is  the  height  of  the  smallest  part  ? 
(2)  Two  stars  appear  to  be  at  a  distance  of  17°  15'  from  each  other.  The 
declination  of  the  one  is  21°  9',  of  the  other  35"  8'.  What  is  the  difference 
in  right  ascension  between  the  two  ?  (3)  A  parabola  and  a  straight  line 
have  the  equations,  y'1  =  4  x  and  y  =x  —  3.  How  large  is  the  segment  of  the 
parabola  which  is  intersected  by  the  straight  line  ?  (4)  x  =  3  +  -y~  +  ^' 

WEIMAU  :  Time,  six  hours. — (1)  Find  a  circle  touching  two  given 
circles,  one  of  them  in  a  given  point.  (2)  Given  the  longest  side  of  a 
triangle  equal  to  25  cm,  and  the  ratio  2  :  3  :  5  of  the  radii  of  the  three 
circles  touching  externally,  find  the  other  two  sides,  the  angles  and  the 
radius  of  the  inscribed  circle.  (3)  A  cone  made  of  pine  wood  (sp.  gravity 
i),  whose  radius  and  altitude  are  the  same,  has  had  |  of  its  volume  cut 
off  at  the  top.  How  far  does  it,  with  its  base  turned  upward,  go  down  in 
water  ?  (4)  Two  elipses,  whose  minor  axes  are  as  1  :  \/2,  hav«>  each  the 
end  of  its  major  axis  coinciding  with  the  centre  of  the  other.  Find  the 
co-ordinates  of  their  points  of  intersection,  and  the  condition  of  their 
being  of  the  same  length. 


326  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

is  not  slow  to  take  advantage  of  all  that  comes  his  way. 
Indirectly,  therefore,  the  best  interests  of  a  department  are 
jeopardized ;  weakness  is  introduced  where  there  should  be 
strength. 

Not  only  have  examinations  no  terrors,  but  it  is  not  gen- 
erally recognised  that  a  knowledge  of  mathematics  increases 
one's  chances   of  success  in  professional   life. 

These  factors  a11  tend  to  make  a  complicated 
problem  the  more  involved.  And  not  all  mas- 
ters are  teachers.  The  results  in  such  cases  are  deplorable  in 
any  event,  but  especially  so  under  German  methods.  When 
all  depends  upon  the  teacher  and  he  fails,  what  is  to  become 
of  the  pupil  ?  He  has  no  incentives,  ideal  or  material,  to  spur 
him  on  ;  and  if  he  be  a  genius,  the  very  text-books  discourage 
independence.  The  pupil  must  follow  ;  he  can  neither  lead 
nor  go  alone. 

The  German  ideal  is  very  high,  though  possibly  none  too 
high.     But  for  ideal  methods  you  must  have  ideal  teachers, 
and  no  one  will  say  that  Germany  has  too  many 

of  such-     Indeed>  :  am  told  that  it;  is  more  diffi- 
cult  to  find  good  teachers  of  mathematics  than  of 

any  other  subject.  One  cause  is  not  far  to  seek.  The  Ger- 
man universities  are  founded  on  the  classics.  For  three  cen- 
turies, and  more,  a  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Latin  has  been 
the  conditio  sine  qua  non  of  admission  to  university  privileges ; 
and  to-day  only  graduates  of  the  Gymnasien  have  full  rights. 
Popular  demands  of  the  last  few  years  have  secured  some  con- 
cessions for  the  Real-schools,  but  in  each  step  the  intellectual 
monopolists  have  fancied  an  encroachment  on  the  dignity  of 
learning.  The  medical  fraternity,  as  individuals,  would  be 
glad  of  more  and  better  training  in  science  and  the  modern 
languages  ;  but  the  pride  of  the  profession  demands  Greek 
and  Latin  instead.  What  wonder,  then,  that  questions  of 
caste  have  arisen  from  the  partisan  strife  over  the  rights  of 
the  secondary  schools  !  It  even  enters  the  university,  and 
casts  a  shadow  upon  those  courses  that  are  "  fit  only  for  Real- 
school  graduates."  And  what  are  these  courses  ?  Mathematics 


INSTRUCTION  IN  MATHEMATICS  327 

and  Natural  Sciences  ! l  The  moral  is  plain.  The  teacher  of 
mathematics  has  not  the  social  standing  of  the  philologian. 
Caste  enters  into  school  life,  and  the  students  see  it.  Nothing 
but  the  force  of  personality  can  break  these  bonds — a  person- 
ality stronger  than  most  men  have.  Or,  stated  in  another  way, 
there  is  nothing  inherent  in  the  office  of  the  mathematician 
to  gain  for  him  a  social  rank  equal  to  .that  indissolubly  con- 
nected with  the  humanistic  studies.  I  speak  especially  of  the 
mathematical  post  in  the  Gymnasium;  in  the  Real-school 
there  may  not  be  the  same  internal  gradations,  but  the  school 
itself  stands  on  a  lower  level.  The  outlook  discourages  the 
best  candidates  ;  and,  as  a  result,  the  mantle  too  often  falls  on 
men  who  have  not  the  keen,  clear-cut  intellects  so  essential  to 
success  under  the  German  system. 

Despite  these  defects  in  particulars,  there  are  advantages  in 
the  German  plan  which  no  thoughtful  teacher,  no  one  charged 
with  school  management,  can  afford  to  disregard. 
The  teacher  is  always  a  trained  specialist.  No 
man  finds  a  post  in  a  German  school  nowadays 
who  is  not  master  of  what  he  purposes  to  teach  ;  he  has  had, 
moreover,  two  years  of  professional  training  in  theory  and 
practice.  And,  on  the  other  side,  there  are  (1)  the  unity  of 
the  course,  which  is  rendered  still  more  effective  by  the  inter- 
lacing and  blending  of  the  subordinate  lines  ;  (2)  the  empha- 
sis put  upon  mental  operations,  and  (3)  the  supreme  end  to- 
ward which  all  aims — logical  thinking.  These,  at  least,  can 
be  unreservedly  commended.  As  for  the  German  methods, 
the  final  question  is,  Does  the  pupil  become  an  independent 
thinker  ?  Granting  good  teachers,  my  answers  are :  JVo — so  far 
as  the  poorest  are  concerned ;  Very  doubtful — for  the  average ; 
but  emphatically  Yes — for  the  best  in  the  class.  To  the  ear- 
nest student,  the  very  consciousness  of  increasing  strength  and 
clearness  of  vision  is  of  itself  an  incentive  to  mastery.  He 
feels  that  he  is  getting  something  better  than  skill  in  the 
manipulation  of  symbols.  The  external  operation  is  for  him 
merely  the  record  of  his  own  thought — convenient  and  useful 

1  Realgymnasiasts  may  also  study  the  modern  languages. 


328  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

for  the  time  being,  but  relatively  unessential.    "  The  life  is 
more  than  meat,  and  the  body  is  more  than  raiment." 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — Meyer,  Mitteilungen  aus  dem  mathematischen 
Lehrplan  des  Stadtgymnasiums  zu  Halle,  program  of  1891 ;  Becker,  Zur 
Reform  des  geometrischen  Unterrichts,  Wertheim,  1880 ;  Wernicke,  Die 
Grundlage  der  Euklidischen  Geometric,  des  Masses,  Brunswick,  1887 ; 
Schellbach,  Uber  den  Inhalt  und  die  Bedeutung  des  mathematischen  und 
physikalischen  Unterrichts  auf  unseren  Gymnasien,  Berlin,  2d  ed.,  1884 ; 
Kehrbach,  Man.  Ger.  Peed.,  Vol.  III. — Geschichte  des  mathematischen 
Unterrichts  im  deutschen  Mittelalter  bis  zum  Jahre  1525 ;  Beier,  Die 
Mathematik  im  Unterricht  der  hoheren  Schulen  von  der  Reformation 
bis  zur  Mitte  des  18.  Jahrhunderts,  Krimmitschau,  1879 ;  Schellbach, 
Der  Zukunft  der  Mathematik,  Berlin,  1887;  Baumeister,  Handbuch, 
Vol.  IV.;  Schiller,  Praktische  Padagogik  ;  Encyclopedias  of  Schraid 
and  Rein ;  Young,  The  Teaching  of  Mathematics  in  the  Higher  Schools 
of  Prussia,  New  York,  1900. 


CHAPTER    XVII 

INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES 

IN  the  early  days  of  the  German  schools  the  classical  lan- 
guages and  literatures  formed  substantially  the  entire  curric- 
ulum.    The  Reformation  induced  some  minor 
changes  and  gave  a  new  impulse  to  educational      Protestant 
activity,  but  we  are  told  that  in  Sturm's  school        Schools, 
in  Strasburg — the  most  famous  and  influential  school  of  the 
sixteenth  century — neither  history,  nor  mathematics,  nor  the 
natural  sciences,  were  considered  of  any  consequence  ;  that 
for  thirty  years  even  the  elements  of  arithmetic  were  not 
taught,  and  that  throughout  Sturm's  long  tenure  of  office 
arithmetic  and  geometry,  geography  and   astronomy,  were 
never  much  in  evidence  except  on  paper. 

The  Jesuits  did  little  more  in  science  ;  pietas  et  boni  mores, 
their  great  aim  in  education,  seems  to  have  been  conceived  of 
as  independent  of  the  physical  world.  But 
with  the  advent  of  the  seventeenth  century  a 
new  view  of  the  world  was  promulgated,  and 
the  necessity  of  man's  knowing  the  significance  of  his  environ- 
ment became  obvious.  The  ideas  of  Bacon  were  domiciled 
in  Germany  by  the  teachings  of  Ratke  and  Comenius,  but 
it  would  be  erroneous  to  suppose  that  the  ideals  of  these 
advanced  thinkers  were  speedily  realized  in  the  father- 
land. Not  even  in  the  Ritterakademien  of  the  following 
century  did  the  natural  sciences  have  any  important  place ; 
nevertheless,  the  secondary  schools  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
influenced  doubtless  by  A.  H.  Francke's  experiments  in  Halle, 
recognised  for  the  first  time  the  utility  of  certain  forms  of 

329 


330  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

scientific  knowledge.  Utilitarian  considerations,  pure  and 
simple,  determined  the  admission  of  Heimatskunde  into  the 
curriculum  of  the  first  Real-schools,  As  these  institutions 
became  more  clearly  differentiated  from  the  humanistic 
schools,  the  practical  advantages  of  the  natural  sciences  were 
the  more  apparent ;  and  in  place  of  the  desultory  work  in 
general  science,  systematic  study  of  particular  sciences  was 
introduced. 

The  natural  sciences  have  been  prescribed  as  an  integral 

part  of  the  curriculum  of  all  Prussian  higher  schools  since 

1816.     The  southern  states  did  not  recognise 

Lehrplan  of  1816.     ,      .  & 

the  innovation  for  several  years  ;  and  when  they 
did,  less  time  was  given  to  the  sciences  than  in  Prussia.  This 
distinction  is  still  maintained  in  respect  to  the  comparative 
time  allotment.  The  Prussian  Gymnasium  has  eighteen 
week-hours  in  the  sciences,  an  average  of  two  hours  a  week 
for  each  class  ;  Bavaria  gives  but  five  hours  to  natural  history, 
as  compared  with  eight  hours  in  Prussia,  and  does  not  yet 
recognise  physics  as  a  subject  independent  of  mathematics  ; 
Wiirtemberg  prescribes  a  total  of  fourteen  week-hours  for 
natural  history  and  physics,  an  average  of  one  and  four- 
teuths  hours  a  week. 

At  the  present  time  the  biological  sciences  are  everywhere 
completely  separated  from  physics  and  chemistry.  The  course 
in  natural  history  begins  in  Sexta  with  children  of  nine  years 
of  age,  and  is  continued  in  the  Prussian  Gymnasien  during 
the  succeeding  four  years,  in  the  Realgymnasien  and  Ober- 
realschulen  for  six  years.  Physics  and  chemistry  are  taught 
only  in  the  upper  classes. 

The  chief  aim  of  all  instruction  in  the  natural  sciences  is 

to  cultivate  the  habit  of  keen  and  accurate  observation,  to 

strengthen   the  pupils'  reasoning  powers  and 

The  Chief  Aim.  i ;    f  .  6 

to  increase  his  ability  of  expressing  clearly  what 
he  sees  and  thinks.  The  acquisition  of  a  fund  of  systematic 
knowledge  or  useful  information  is  a  secondary  consideration. 
P*%dsgogical  writers  and  practical  teachers  are  agreed  in  this  ; 
/nrthermore,  there  is  general  unanimity  of  opinion  touching  \ 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES      331 

the  subject-matter  and  methods  of  instruction.  So  far  as  is 
possible,  the  material  used  should  be  taken  from  the  pupils' 
immediate  environment ;  the  order  of  progression  should  be 
from  the  near  and  simple  to  the  more  remote  and  difficult. 
In  methods,  it  is  generally  agreed  to  be  advisable  to  work  in- 
ductively rather  than  deductively.  A  revolution  in  methods 
of  teaching  is  even  now  taking  place. 

A  few  years  ago  the  ideal  was  to  give  a  systematic  presenta- 
tion of  each  science ;  the  subject-matter  might  come  from 
near  or  far,  providing  it  satisfied  the  general 

m,  r  ,  °  .         ,  .          Former  Ideals. 

scheme.  The  leaders  in  theory  and  practice 
of  the  present  day  have  no  hesitation  in  throwing  over  any 
scheme  that  early  takes  the  child  out  of  his  local  environment 
and  substitutes  for  his  own  observation,  crude  though  it  may 
be,  the  ready-made  reflections  of  the  text-book  or  the  opinions 
of  the  teacher.  As  between  a  little  of  all  that  can  "be  known 
and  all  that  can  be  known  of  a  little,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
in  the  German  mind ;  to  drink  deep  or  not  at  all  is  surely  a 
German  characteristic.  Nevertheless,  it  is  impossible  to  follow 
out  all  lines  that  have  their  origin  in  the  home  environment ; 
a  selection  must  be  made,  and  the  government  allows  absolute 
freedom  of  choice  to  schools  and  teachers  as  to  what  shall  be 
taught  within  the  limits  above  mentioned.  Success  or  failure, 
therefore,  in  science  work  reflects  directly  upon  the  teachers 
and  the  management  of  schools. 

The  first  steps  in  natural  history  lead  the  child  to  observe 
the  simplest  and  most  familiar  forms  of  plant  and  animal  life 
in  his  home  region.  The  wisdom  of  the  teacher 
is  manifested  in  the  selections  he  makes  for  class 
instruction  ;  not  all  groups  are  represented  in 
the  local  flora  and  fauna,  and  consideration  of  too  many  rep- 
resentatives from  any  one  group  is  precluded  for  lack  of  time. 
Training  in  observation  demands  that  the  pupil  handle  the 
specimens  studied  and  report  his  own  opinions.  In  botany 
this  can  be  easily  managed,  but  in  zoology  it  becomes  a  differ- 
ent problem.  No  laboratories  are  provided  for  individual 
work  in  natural  history,  and  consequently  from  the  very  be- 


332  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ginning  the  opportunity  for  individual  observation  is  greatly 
restricted.  To  overcome  this  obstacle,  magnificent  collections 
illustrating  almost  every  department  of  natural  science  havs 
been  gathered  by  many  of  the  leading  schools.  In  botany, 
most  schools  will  have  a  complete  herbarium  of  domestic 
plants  and  many  specimens  of  foreign  flora.  Besides  this, 
models  are  commonly  used  for  class  demonstration,  and  ex- 
cellent charts  of  foreign  plants  supplement  the  illustrations 
of  text-books. 

Mounted  animals,  skeletons  and  preparations  in  alcohol  are 
found  in  large  numbers  in  some  schools,  and  are  put  to  good 
use  in  the  class-room ;  but  without  laboratory  work  there 
is  small  chance  of  promoting  those  habits  of  "keen  and  ac- 
curate observation  "  everywhere  demanded  of  instruction  in 
science.  Again,  the  teacher  must  rely  largely  on  models 
and  charts.  And  although  the  German  teacher  is  fortunate 
in  having  his  choice  of  the  best  models  and  charts  in  the 
world,  yet  there  is  an  obvious  contradiction  between  the  de- 
mands of  theory  and  the  results  of  practice.  In  other  re- 
spects, too,  practice  often  lags  so  far  behind  theory,  that  one 
is  inclined  to  doubt  the  all-sufficiency  of  high  ideals  even  in 
Germany. 

It  is  with  no  little  hesitancy  that  I  attempt  an  explication 
of  the  prevailing  methods  of  teaching  the  natural  sciences  in 
the  German  schools.  So  much  of  the  instruction  to  which  I 
listened  was  unpardonably  bad,  that  I  much  distrust  my  ability 
to  present  clearly  that  which  is  obviously  commendable. 
Fortunately,  my  experiences  were  not  always  disappointing ; 
and,  on  the  whole,  it  may  be  quite  as  well  for  the  reader  to 
know  that  German  schools  and  German  teachers  are  not 
always  the  paragons  of  excellence  that  some  would  have  us 
think. 

We  have  seen  that  more  time  is  given  to  the  sciences  in  the 

Real-schools  than  in  the  Gymnasien — in  Prussia,  a  total  of 

thirty  week-hours  in  the  Realqvmnasien  and 

Time  Allotment.    .,.....-.        *i  777 

thirty-six  in  the  Ooerreahclmlen,  as  compared 
with  eighteen  in  the  Gymnasien.     Furthermore,  the  science 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES      333 

work  in  the  Real-schools  is  taken  more  seriously  than  in  the 
Gymnasien.  In  consequence,  I  have  selected  as  a  type  of  what 
is  done  in  Prussia  the  course  of  study  prescribed  in  the  Konig- 
stadtisches  Realgymnasium  of  Berlin.  This  is  one  of  the  oldest 
Real-schools  of  the  city,  founded  in  1832,  and  now  attended 
by  nearly  six  hundred  students.  For  the  fifteen  classes  there 
are  twenty  Oberlehrer  and  six  Hilfslehrer,  besides  four  teach- 
ers of  drawing,  music  and  gymnastics.  Three  Hilfslehrer 
and  six  Oberlehrer  teach  natural  science — no  one,  however, 
devoting  himself  exclusively  to  science  work.  The  most  fre- 
quent combinations  are  natural  history,  geography  and  arith- 
metic ;  natural  history,  geography  and  German  ;  physics  (or 
chemistry),  algebra  and  geometry ;  chemistry,  natural  his- 
tory and  arithmetic.  The  Director  teaches  physics,  natural 
history  and  religion. 

The  course  followed  in  this  school  comes  near  the  high- 
water-mark  in  Prussia.     Such  differences  as  exist  in  other 
schools  are  chiefly  due,  as  I  have  shown,  to  the 
preferences  of  individual  teachers.     The  teacher    Theg<^r8e  of 
who  delights  in  field  work  will  arrange  for  class 
excursions,  not  merely  for  the  sake  of  securing   botanical 
specimens,  but  with  a  view  of  interesting  his  pupils  in  nature 
and  nature  study.     Another  teacher  may  have  a  genius  for 
class-room  demonstration,  and  succeed  thereby  in  arousing  the 
right  form  of  scientific  curiosity.     A  third  may  know  how  to 
utilize  the  laboratory  and  make  it  an  efficient  instrument  in 
promoting  inductive  research.     The  Konigstadtisches  Gym- 
nasium  has  such   teachers,   and   we  find   represented  here 
all  phases  of  scientific  work  to  be  found  in  any  secondary 
school. 

The  course  in  natural  history,  as  outlined  in  the  program 
of  1895-1896,  is  as  follows  : 

Sexta :  2  hours.     Summer — Description  of  various  plants 
with  large  and  simple  flowers.     Explanation  of  morphological 
cal  principles.     Winter — Description  of  various  NatnralHIpto_ 
mammals  and  birds  and  their  habits.     Explana- 
tion of  the  most  important  zoological  principles  and  laws. 


334  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

Text-book,  Vogel,  Miillenhoff,  Kienitz-Gerloff,  Botanik  und 
Zoologie,  Teil  I. 

Quinta :  2  hours.  Summer — Comparative  description  of 
plants  of  simple  structure,  with  a  view  to  their  classification 
according  to  common  and  differential  characteristics.  Study 
of  morphological  principles  continued.  Winter — Comparative 
description  of  mammals  and  birds,  with  special  attention  to 
scientific  classification.  The  skeleton  of  man,  of  other  mam- 
mals and  of  birds.  Text-book,  same  as  in  Sexta. 

Quarta :  2  hours.  Summer — Comparative  description  of 
related  plants  and  species,  with  special  attention  to  various 
representatives  of  families  of  highly  developed  plants  ( Um- 
belliferce  and  Composite^).  Extension  and  classification  of 
the  principles  of  morphology.  Toward  the  end  of  the  se- 
mester practice  in  plant  analysis  according  to  the  Linnaean 
system.  Winter — Comparative  study  of  mammals  and  birds 
continued.  Description  of  various  representatives  of  reptiles, 
amphibians  and  fishes.  Principles  of  the  skeleton  of  verte- 
brates. Classification  of  vertebrates.  Text-book,  same  as  in 
Quinta. 

Untertertia :  2  hours.  Summer — Comparative  study  of 
compound  flowering  plants,  e.g.,  Amentacem  and  Gram- 
inacece.  Characteristics  of  the  most  important  families  of 
uncultivated  plants.  Study  of  plant  morphology  continued. 
Study  of  plant  growth.  Analysis  of  plants.  Winter — Com- 
parative study  of  the  anatomy  and  growth  of  articulates. 
Characteristics  of  insect  species.  Review  of  the  system  of 
vertebrates.  Text-book,  same  as  in  Quarta,  Teil  II. 

Obertertia :  2  hours.  Summer — Study  of  gymnosperms 
and  cryptogams,  and  the  most  important  of  cultivated  foreign 
plants.  Explanation  of  the  chief  morphological,  biological 
and  anatomical  characteristics  of  the  same.  Arrangement 
according  to  the  natural  system  of  all  plants  thus  far  studied. 
The  simplest  principles  of  plant  distribution.  Practice  in 
plant  analysis.  AVinter — Description  of  certain  representa- 
tives of  the  lower  animals.  Review  of  all  animals  thus  far 
studied,  according  to  types  and  classes  of  the  natural  system. 
Fundamental  principles  of  palaeontology.  Text-book,  same 
as  in  Untertertia. 

Untersecunda :  2  hours.  First  semester — The  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  plants  and  animals  continued  and  extended. 
Anthropology.  Second  semester  —  Physical  and  chemical 
peculiarities  of  water,  air,  fire  and  earth.  Text-book,  same, 
as  in  Obertertia,  Teil  III, 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     335 

The  instructions  of  the  Prussian  department  of  education 
emphasize  observation  and  description  of  natural  objects. 
The  importance  of  accurate  description  is  seen  in  the  terms 
everywhere  used  in  Prussia  designating  the  first  division 
of  science  work,  Naturbeschreibung  ;  the  older  designation, 
Naturgeschichte,  is  still  used  in  Hamburg  and  some  of  the 
southern  states. 

A  necessary  prerequisite  to  observation  and  description  is 
that  the  child  shall  have  something  to  observe  and  describe. 
Specimens  of  plants  may  be  put  in  the  pupil's 
hand  for  this  purpose,  and  the  entire  work  re- 
stricted  to  the  class-room.  Such  a  plan  may 
give  practice  in  description,  but  intelligent  observation  of 
nature  can  be  taught  only  by  going  to  nature  herself.  The 
structure  of  plants  and  animals  may  be  learned  in  the  class- 
room and  laboratory  ;  but  the  significance  of  plant  and  animal 
life,  the  interdependence  of  the  lower  and  higher  orders  and 
the  influence  of  climate,  soil  and  moisture  upon  all  forms 
of  life  are  to  be  seen  only  out-of-doors.  For  this  purpose 
class  excursions  are  usually  arranged  on  half-holidays.  The 
Konigstddtisches  Gymnasium  arranges  for  one  excursion  a 
week.  Pupils  of  any  class  in  natural  history  may  take  part, 
but  the  participation  is  optional.  The  success  of  the  under- 
taking is  entirely  dependent  upon  the  teacher.  As  may 
be  imagined,  some  teachers  have  more  followers  than  they  can 
readily  manage ;  others,  after  making  a  few  trials,  conclude 
that  field  work  is  a  farce. 

These  excursions  are  generally  of  a  half-day's  duration, 
but  in  some  schools  there  is  a  midsummer  outing  of  a  week 
or  two.  The  pupils  visit  various  places  of  in- 

,    .    *  ,.      f  ,  Class.Excursiona. 

terest  pertaining  to  some  particular  study  or 
line  of  work  which  they  are  about  to  begin.  Geographical 
points  are  located,  and  historical  events  impressed  upon  the 
children's  minds  by  perceiving  the  actual  places  of  their  oc- 
currence. Botany,  zoology,  geography,  geology  and  miner- 
alogy are  thus  studied  objectively,  and  much  material  is  col- 
lected for  use  in  the  class-room.  The  appearance  and  habits 


336  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

of  various  birds  and  animals  are  discovered  by  experience ; 
the  life  and  habitat  of  many  plants  are  made  known  ;  and 
all  this,  scientifically  conducted  and  explained  by  the  teacher, 
serves  not  only  to  increase  the  knowledge  but  also  the  inter- 
est of  the  pupil  in  the  pursuit  of  his  studies.  The  main  ob- 
ject, that  of  increasing  the  power  of  observation,  is  certainly 
accomplished.  It  is  a  difficult  matter  in  the  large  cities  to 
arrange  for  excursions  far  enough  into  the  country  to  see  na- 
ture at  her  best,  but  parks  and  zoological  gardens  offer  a  fair 
substitute.  It  must  be  said,  however,  that  a  trip  through  a 
city  park  does  not  furnish  much  material  for  class  use.  To 
offset  this  difficulty,  many  city  schools  have  adopted  the 
charming  expedient  of  maintaining  flower-gardens  of  their 
own.  The  children  plant  the  seeds  and  tend  their  growth, 
labelling  each  specimen  in  true  botanical  fashion.  I  have 
observed,  too,  that  in  some  of  the  smaller  towns  the  schools 
have  not  only  beautiful  gardens  of  flowering  plants,  but  min- 
iature parks,  set  out  with  trees  and  shrubs  of  rare  beauty.  A 
more  effective  means  of  awakening  an  interest  in  botany,  I 
think,  would  be  hard  to  devise.  Here  is  a  suggestion  of  what 
might  be  done  with  the  spacious  grounds  of  our  American 
public  schools. 

I  have  already  spoken  of  the  part  played  in  instruction  by 

the  school  museum.     Considered  as  a  means  of  elucidating 

obscure  problems  incident    to    class  teaching, 

School  Museums.  •  A  ° 

these  collections  are  very  valuable.  In  this 
respect  some  secondary  schools  rival  the  smaller  universities. 
The  danger  is  that,  so  long  as  somewhere  in  the  school  there 
is  a  chart,  model  or  mounted  specimen  of  each  object  studied 
in  class,  the  museum  will  be  drawn  upon  for  its  stores  to  the 
neglect  of  almost  all  field  work.  Precisely  this  state  of  af- 
fairs exists  in  the  majority  of  schools  that  I  have  visited.  My 
own  experience  would  lead  me  to  say  that  the  average  teacher 
relies  almost  exclusively  upon  accumulated  stores  of  past- 
years.  While  in  tneory  each  pupil  is  expected  to  have  in 
his  hands  a  specimen  of  all  the  common  plants  as  they  are 
discussed  in  class,  I  have  seen  the  pea  studied  by  a  class  of 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     337 

thirty  boys  from  a  model  that  was  not  taken  from  the  teacher's 
desk  during  the  hour ;  and  at  the  close  of  the  lesson  not  a 
word  was  said  about  noting  the  plant  in  its  cultivated  state, 
although  acres  of  it  were  growing  within  a  mile  of  the  site, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  the  home  task  as  assigned  was  to  copy 
the  drawing  given  in  the  text-book.  I  still  have  my  doubts 
whether  the  majority  of  the  class  did  not  conceive  of  the  true 
flower  as  being  about  a  foot  in  diameter. 

Such  an  instance  as  the  one  just  related  is,  of  course,  an 
extreme  case.  The  teacher,  if  he  had  any  object  other  than 
drawing  his  salary,  was  aiming  at  systematic  botany.  And, 
notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  recent  years,  many  of  the  sci- 
ence teachers  are  still  engaged  in  teaching  botany  and  zo- 
ology, physics  and  chemistry.  There  is  plenty  of  evidence 
of  this  in  almost  every  school.  Even  the  course  of  study 
outlined  above  seems  to  emphasize  at  every  turn  the  syste- 
matic presentation  of  the  subjects.  In  the  last  resort,  we  must 
turn  to  the  methods  employed  in  instruction  rather  than  the 
material  of  the  course  in  order  to  evaluate  correctly  the  work 
in  natural  history. 

Observation,  inference  and  description  go  hand  in  hand. 
Assuming  that  a  class  is  provided  with  something  to  examine, 
it  is  a  teacher's  business  to  see  that  right  ob- 
servations are  made.  Nothing  is  gained  by 
puzzling  the  child  or  allowing  him  to  waste 
time  and  energy  in  a  fruitless  search  for  something  he  might 
find  instantly  if  properly  guided.  As  if  anyone  ever  learned 
to  see  by  groping  in  the  dark  !  This  conception  of  teaching 
is  characteristically  German.  One  of  its  principal  advant- 
ages is  that  it  permits  the  teacher  to  lead  his  pupils  quickly 
and  easily  to  an  understanding  of  some  general  principle 
which  might  otherwise  be  misinterpreted  or  overlooked  en- 
tirely. The  course  of  study,  therefore,  outlines  the  general 
principles  which  are  to  be  arrived  at ;  the  teacher  alone  is 
responsible  for  the  methods  of  procedure. 

I  find  among  my  notes  a  fairly  typical  lesson  in  zoology 
with  boys  of  ten  years  of  age  (Quintet).  The  school  /s  a  pri- 


338  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

vate  institution  in  central  Germany  ;  the  topic,  "  The  Seal." 
The  lesson  opened  with  a  review  of  the  families  of  animals 
already  studied,  a  few  individuals  being  cited 
as  characteristics  of  each  group.  Next  followed 
a  brief  summary  of  the  previous  lesson,  on  the 
means  of  identifying  animals  by  the  teeth  and  skull.  Speci- 
mens of  these  parts  were  distributed  among  the  class,  and  each 
boy  was  requested  to  name  the  animal  to  which  his  specimen 
belonged  and  state  the  grounds  on  which  he  based  his  infer- 
ence. Great  interest  was  manifested  in  this  part  of  the  work, 
which  was  continued  for  about  twenty  minutes. 

The  teacher  next  directed  their  attention  to  a  finely 
mounted  seal  standing  upon  his  desk.  His  questions  ran 
somewhat  as  follows  :  "  What  is  it  ?  Who  has  seen  one  ? 
Where  ?  What  did  it  do  ?  How  long  can  it  stay  under 
water  ?  What  does  it  do  when  it  comes  again  to  the  surface  ? 
How  is  it  able  to  stay  so  long  under  water  ?  Why  does  it  go 
under  water  ?  What  does  it  get  there  ?  What  else  will  it 
eat  ?  Will  it  eat  fresh-water  fish  ?  (Several  boys  are  called 
up  to  examine  its  nose  and  feet.)  What  about  his  legs — 
number,  shape — fingers,  etc.  ?  How  can  it  close  its  nostrils  ? 
What  can  you  say  of  its  coat  ?  How  does  the  fur  lie  ?  What 
advantage  is  it  to  the  animal  ?  How  long  are  its  whiskers  ? 
What  are  they  for  ?  How  long  is  this  seal  ?  (Boy  measures 
it,  and  reports  to  class.)  How  broad  ?  What  is  the  shape  of 
its  body  ?  Why  does  it  not  freeze  in  the  ice-cold  water  ? 
Is  the  body  of  the  living  seal  of  the  same  temperature  as  the 
water  ?  What  is  the  temperature  of  this  room  ?  What  is  the 
temperature  of  your  body  ?  What  enables  the  seal  to  keep 
so  warm  amid  such  cold  surroundings  ?" 

From  the  trend  of  these  questions,  it  is  easy  to  infer  the 
answers  given  by  the  class.  In  regard  to  the  habits  and 
habitat  of  the  seal,  the  teacher  had  to  supplement  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  class.  The  main  purpose  of  the  lesson,  apparently, 
was  to  emphasize  the  difference  in  temperature  between  the 
animal's  body  and  its  surroundings.  The  subject  of  food  as- 
similation and  oxidation  of  tissue  was  treated  at  length.  The 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     339 

recitation,  measured  both  by  the  interest  manifested  by  the 
pupils  and  the  skill  with  which  the  teacher  brought  the  les- 
son home  to  them,  was  a  decided  success. 

An  essential  part  of  the  descriptive  work  in  science  is  the 
making  of  a  detail  drawing  of  every  object  studied  in  class. 
In  general,  this  is  the  only  home  task  in  science 
work.     The  care  exercised   in  writing  up  the 
note-books  and  in  making  the  drawings  is  everywhere  appar- 
ent ;  sometimes,  I  suspect,  teachers  of  doubtful  ability  cover 
up  their  own  sins  by  fine  displays  of  note-books  on  all  public 
occasions.     But,  whatever  the  motive  may  be,  it  is  certainly 
true  that  drawing  is  of  most  effective  service  in  all  science 
teaching. 

Laboratory  work,  as  has  been  said,  is  practically  unknown 
in  natural  history.  The  nearest  approach  to  it  is  in  plant 
analysis,  but  the  methods  employed  preclude 

,.       J       '  .  i         mu  Laboratory  Work. 

the  possibility  of  independent  work.  The  pro- 
cess is  precisely  the  same  as  is  followed  in  the  solution  of 
mathematical  problems.  Pupils  are  not  given  a  number  of 
specimens  and  told  to  work  them  out  previous  to  the  next 
lesson.  Having  learned  inductively  the  main  principles  of 
the  Linnaean  system  from  the  classification  of  individuals 
studied,  this  knowledge  is  applied  in  the  process  of  identify- 
ing new  specimens.  The  teacher  asks  for  each  of  the  essential 
characteristics.  The  responses  of  the  class  are  based  on  strict 
observation  of  the  specimen  in  hand.  At  each  step  the 
teacher  reviews  past  observations  and  calls  up  the  peculiarities 
of  the  various  classes,  orders  and  families.  Under  such 
leadership,  it  would  be  strange  if  any  pupil  should  fail  in 
identifying  his  specimen.  Notwithstanding  the  great  stress 
put  upon  observation  and  description  in  natural  history,  one 
is  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  little  independent 
observation  or  unbiased  description. 

There  is  something  to  be  said  for  the  teacher  who  is  unable 
to  make  his  work  popular  and  successful.  The  residuum  of 
many  conversations  with  science  teachers  and  others  is  to 
this  effect :  In  the  first  place,  the  universities,  where  all  sec- 


340  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ondary  teachers  must  get  their  training,  give  no  heed  what- 
soever to  the  needs  of  the  schools.  The  sciences  are  taught 
in  the  most  thorough  and  intensive  manner 
P°ssible-  In  other  words,  the  man  who  after 
five  years  of  advanced  study  in  the  university, 
the  greater  part  of  the  time  devoted  to  independent  research, 
can  adapt  himself  to  the  needs  of  nine-year-old  children  is  a 
genius.  It  is  too  much  to  expect  of  the  average  man  till  the 
university  offers  training  courses  for  teachers.  In  the  second 
place,  the  government,  while  apparently  expecting  field  work 
from  the  fact  that  botany  is  regularly  put  in*  the  summer 
semester,  makes  absolutely  no  provision  for  it  and  allows  no 
credit  for  what  may  be  done.  It  means,  too,  that  teachers 
and  pupils  must  give  up  their  half-holidays  to  outside  work. 
Furthermore,  the  government  makes  no  allowance  for  the 
extra  demands  made  upon  the  science  teacher  in  the  collection 
and  preservation  of  material,  the  preparation  of  objects  for 
demonstration  and  the  supervision  of  the  laboratory  work  ; 
he  must  put  in  full  time — twenty  to  twenty-four  hours  a 
week — the  same  as  his  colleagues.  And,  finally,  the  excuse  is 
often  urged  that  in  the  Gymnasium  the  pupils  feel  it  is  of 
small  consequence  whether  they  are  proficient  in  the  sciences 
or  not ;  there  is  no  final  examination,  and  even  the  indolent 
and  dullards  will  be  promoted  if  only  they  know  some  Latin, 
Greek  and  German.  The  science  teacher,  especially  if  he 
be  not  cast  in  the  classical  mould,  sometimes  is  made  to  feel 
that  his  social  and  professional  standing  is  questionable. 

Such  statements,  though  coming  from  thoughtful  teachers, 
should  not  be  regarded  as  the  whole  truth.     It  is  unquestion- 
ably true  that  in  some  schools  the  teachers  of 

Class  Distinctions        ,J 

science  belong  to  a  different  social  stratum 
from  the  other  teachers ;  but  the  accident  of  birth  is  the 
important  factor.  A  gentleman  may  teach  science  and  not 
lose  caste.  Germany  is  far  from  being  a  pure  democracy,  and 
social  distinctions  are  not  always  obliterated  by  recognition 
of  personal  worth.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  just  cause  for 
complaint  from  gymnasial  teachers  when  proficiency  in  other 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     341 

subjects  will  secure  a  pupil's  promotion  in  science.  This  is  a 
serious  problem  ;  and,  so  long  as  the  government  leaves  it  un- 
solved, there  can  be  no  doubt  that  science  is  really  considered 
a  second  or  third-rate  study. 

But  after  all  the  shortcomings  in  the  teaching  of  natural 
history  in  the  German  schools  are  discovered,  we  are  obliged  to 
express  high  regard  for  what  is  accomplished 
by  the  leaders  of  the  new  movement.  As  a  Jenac^euasial 
conspicuous  instance  of  the  acme  of  arrange- 
ment and  method,  I  subjoin  an  outline  of  the  course  in  nature 
study  followed  during  the  first  two  years  in  the  Jena  Gym- 
nasium. It  will  be  noted  that  the  aim  is  not  only  to  give 
the  child  information  about  nature,  but  to  help  him  to  see 
scientific  facts  in  their  interrelations.  For  this  purpose 
nature  study  is  closely  correlated  with  Heimatskunde — that 
branch  of  study  which  aims  to  give  the  child  an  elementary 
knowledge  of  his  home  environment,  physical  and  social. 
Side  by  side  with  the  study  of  botany  and  zoology  goes  that 
of  geography,  history  and  the  legendary  tradition  of  the 
country.  Few  schools  in  Germany  show  such  careful  atten- 
tion to  details,  and  have  so  successfully  worked  out  the  cor- 
relations with  kindred  subjects. 

Nature  study  in  Sexta : l  The  local  environment :  (a) 
Surface  elevations  ;  hills  and  valleys  of  the  neighbourhood, 
(b)  Water-courses  and  roads  :  formation  of  valleys.  Neigh- 
bouring watersheds.  Influence  of  the  water-courses  on  the 
local  industries ;  grist-mills  on  the  smaller  streams  ;  city 
woollen  mills  on  the  Saale.  Land,  road  and  water-ways  : 
paths,  roads,  highways,  railroads,  boating,  rafting,  (c) 
Climate  of  mountains  and  valleys.  Influence  of  mountain 
and  forest  on  atmosphere.  Vegetation  of  mountain  sides 
influenced  by  position,  exposure,  etc.  (d)  Plants  and  ani- 
mals :  grasses  cultivated  for  fodder  (clover,  lucerne,  etc.), 
grains  (wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  etc.),  esculent  plants,  plants 
valuable  for  manufacturing  purposes  (flax,  hops,  etc.),  garden 
fruits  and  wild  flowers  (violet,  rose,  bell-flower,  sunflower, 

1  See  Program  of  the  Jena  Gymnasium,  1891. 


342  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

crane's  bill,  etc.).  Plant  life  :  distribution,  habitat,  depend- 
ence on  soil,  climate  and  animals — these  facts  to  be  pointed 
out  and  studied  on  the  class  excursions.  The  animals  studied 
are  as  follows :  bat,  porcupine,  mole,  shrew-mouse,  field- 
mouse,  weasel,  squirrel,  swine,  deer,  horse,  duck,  goose, 
eagle,  woodpecker,  song-bird,  common  adder,  lizard,  frog, 
carp,  honey-bee,  May  beetle  and  ant.  Interdependence  of 
animals  and  man. 

In  Quinta  the  work  is  extended  beyond  the  local  environ- 
ment, but  is  conducted  upon  the  same  general  principles. 
While  the  geography  of  Thuringia  is  being 
s^u(iied,  the  names  and  location  of  the  moun- 
tains, towns,  valleys  and  river  -  courses  are 
learned.  In  the  lessons  devoted  exclusively  to  nature  study, 
the  influences  of  these  natural  phenomena  upon  the  climate 
and  industrial  life  of  the  people  are  emphasized.  Special 
industries  and  natural  resources  of  certain  towns,  as  glass- 
blowing,  the  making  of  pottery,  mining  of  iron  and  coal,  hot 
springs,  etc.,  are  carefully  explained,  and,  when  possible,  ex- 
cursions are  made  to  the  more  accessible  towns.  The  prod- 
ucts of  the  land,  its  flora  and  fauna,  are  studied  in  so  far  as 
it  is  a  continuation  of  the  work  in  Sexta.  In  a  country  so 
diversified  as  central  Germany,  it  is  possible  to  find  types  of 
the  most  common  plants  and  animals  within  a  radius  of  fifty 
or  a  hundred  miles.  The  extensive  mountain  forests,  with 
their  well-stocked  parks  (game  animals)  and  fertile  valleys, 
afford  abundant  opportunity  for  elementary  study  of  forestry 
and  the  more  important  agricultural  industries. 

The  excellent  results  obtained  in  the  Jena  Gymnasium  in 
some  classes,  and  in  some  schools  in  all  classes,  lead  me  to 
infer  that  when  the  sciences  are  poorly  taught  the  causes  are 
not  far  to  seek.  "Where  there's  a  will  there's  a  way"  is 
certainly  true  in  respect  of  this  subject,  as  of  all  others.  The 
reason  why  most  schools  have  no  "  way  "  worth  following  is 
because  there  is  no  "  will "  worth  consideration.  This  is 
conspicuously  true  in  the  case  of  physics  and  chemistry  in 
all  Gymnasien,  and  with  botany  and  zoology  in  not  a  few. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     343 

Thus  far  I  have  been  considering  chiefly  the  teaching  of 
natural  history  in  the  first  six  years  of  the  higher  schools. 
Inasmuch  as  the  age  of  the  pupils  in  Sexta  is  between  nine 
and  ten  years,  the  greater  part  of  the  course  would  corre- 
spond to  the  upper  primary  and  grammar  school  course  in 
American  schools.  The  work  in  physics  and  chemistry  in 
the  German  schools  corresponds  more  nearly  to  our  high- 
school  standards. 

The  following  outline  of  the  course  in  physics  and  chem- 
istry is  from  the  program  of  the  Konigstddtisches  Realgym- 
nasium,  Berlin,  1895-1896  : 

UNTERSECUNDA. 

Physics,  3  hours.  First  semester  :  Frictional  electricity, 
and  phenomena  out  of  the  domain  of  magnetism  and  galvan- 
ic electricity.  Acoustics  and  optics.  Second 
semester  :  Mechanics  of  solid,  liquid  and  ga- 
seous  bodies.  General  properties  of  matter. 
Parallelogram  of  forces  and  of  motion.  Laws  of  falling  and 
vertically  projected  bodies.  The  simple  machines.  Text- 
book, Jochmann,  Grundriss  der  Experimental  Physik. 

OBERSECUNDA. 

Physics,  3  hours.  First  semester  :  Magnetism  and  gal- 
vanic electricity.  Second  semester  :  Heat.  Repetition  and 
extension  of  mechanics,  especially  of  oblique  projection  and 
of  central  motion.  Text-book,  same  as  in  Untersecunda. 

Chemistry,  2  hours.  First  semester  :  Discussion  of  the 
elements  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  chlorine,  bromine, 
iodine,  fluorine,  in  connection  with  experiments  suitably  se- 
lected. Foundation  of  the  conception  of  element,  compound, 
base,  acid  and  salt.  The  law  of  Marriotte  and  Gay-Lussac 
[the  gas  law,  PV  =  RT],  the  law  of  combination  by  weight 
and  by  volume  [law  of  Gay-Lussac],  the  hypothesis  of  Avoga- 
dro,  the  molecule,  the  atom,  valance.  The  regular  [isometric] 
system  (magnetite,  rock-salt,  fluor-spar),  the  quadratic  [te- 
tragonal] system  (cassiterite).  Angle  measurement  with  the 
goniometer,  the  solution  of  stoichiometrical  problems.  Sec- 
ond semester  :  Discussion  of  the  elements  sulphur,  phos- 
phorus, arsenic,  boron,  carbon  and  silicon,  with  experiments. 


344  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

Extension  of  the  crystallographic  idea.  The  orthorhombic 
and  monoclinic  systems  (snlphur).  Dimorphism,  allotro- 
pism  ;  the  rhombohedral  system  (calcite,  quartz).  Angle 
measurement  with  the  goniometer.  Solution  of  s.toichiomet- 
rical  problems. 

UNTERPRIMA. 

Physics,  3  hours.  First  semester  :  Wave  theory,  acoustiCb 
and  optics.  Second  semester :  Mechanics.  In  both  semes- 
ters, reviews  and  more  thorough  mathematical  treatment  of 
particular  parts  of  the  earlier  work.  Solution  of  problems. 
Text-book,  same  as  in  Untersecunda.  (Physical  laboratory 
exercises,  2  hours,  optional.) 

Chemistry,  2  hours.  First  semester :  Discussion  of  the 
elements  potassium,  sodium,  calcium,  barium,  strontium  and 
magnesium,  with  experiments.  Vapour  density.  Volumetric 
analysis.  Extension  of  the  crystallographic  idea  (hemihe- 
drism,  twinning,  isomorphism,  pseudomorphism  ;  the  phys- 
ical appearance  of  crystals).  Manufacture  of  gunpowder  ; 
production  of  salt,  soda,  chalk  and  gypsum.  Angle  meas- 
urement with  the  reflection  goniometer.  Solution  of  stoichi- 
ometrical  problems.  Second  semester :  Discussion  of  the 
elements  of  zinc,  lead,  iron,  copper,  manganese,  cobalt,  nickel, 
chromium.  The  law  of  Dulong  and  Petit.  Extension  of  the 
crystallographic  idea.  The  monoclinic  system  (green  vitriol). 
The  triclinic  system  (blue  vitriol).  Metallurgy  of  ores  of 
lead,  zinc,  iron  and  copper.  Solution  of  stoichiometrical 
problems.  Technological  excursions.  Work  in  the  chemical 
laboratory.  Illustration  of  preparations.  Qualitative  anal- 
ysis by  the  "wet"  method.  Blow-pipe  analysis  ("dry" 
method).  Physical  experiments  important  for  chemistry. 

OBERPRIMA. 

Physics,  3  hours.  First  semester  :  Optics.  Second  semes- 
ter :  Mechanics.  In  both  semesters,  reviews  and  more  thor- 
ough discussion  of  parts  of  the  earlier  work,  especially  quan- 
titative determinations  and  methods  of  measurement.  Text- 
book, same  as  above.  (Physical  laboratory  exercises,  2  hours, 
optional.) 

Chemistry,  2  hours.  First  semester  :  Discussion  of  the 
elements  tin,  aluminum,  antimony,  bismuth,  mercury,  silver, 
gold,  platinum,  with  experiments.  Manufacture  of  alum. 
Periodicity  of  the  elements.  Solution  of  stoichiometrical 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     345 

problems.  Work  in  the  chemical  laboratory.  Illustration 
of  preparations.  Some  quantitative  determinations.  Volu- 
metric analysis.  Second  semester  :  Introduction  to  organic 
chemistry.  Elementary  ("ultimate")  analysis.  Acids,  al- 
cohols, aromatic  substances,  carbohydrates,  fermentation,  al- 
buminates,  organic  synthesis.  Chemical  theories.  Manufact- 
ure of  paper,  starch  and  sugar.  General  view  of  the  natural 
processes  of  the  organic  world  (germination,  food  assimilation, 
respiration,  decomposition,  putrefaction).  Solution  of  stoi- 
chiometrical  problems.  Technological  excursions.  (Work  in 
the  chemical  laboratory.  Illustrations  of  organic  prepara- 
tions ;  determination  of  sugar  by  chemical  and  optical  meth- 
ods, 2  hours,  optional.) 

This  outline  leaves  little  to  be  said  on  the  subject-matter  of 
instruction  in  physics  and  chemistry.  The  aim  in  the  teach- 
ing of  physics,  as  in  natural  history,  is  not  so 
much  acquaintance  with  a  large  number  of 
facts  as  the  cultivation  of  the  pupil's  ability  to 
make  accurate  observations  and  the  development  of  his 
logical  powers,  chiefly  with  reference  to  the  causal  relations 
existing  between  particular  natural  phenomena.  In  this  re- 
spect the  Real-schools  can  show  better  results  than  the  Gym- 
nasien.  But  in  all  schools  the  government  emphasizes  the 
need  of  scientific  observation,  confirmed  and  strengthened  by 
a  certain  amount  of  formal  practice. 

According  to  the  Prussian  syllabus  of  1892,  the  course  in 
physics  is  divided  into  two  parts.  The  part  first  is  intended  to 
give  the  pupil  some  notion  of  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  subject  as  exemplified  in  the 
ordinary  and  more  familiar  manifestations  of  nature  ;  it  is 
concluded  with  Untersecunda.  The  continuation  of  the 
course  aims  to  give  those  who  may  pass  on  to  the  university 
a  more  comprehensive  understanding  of  physical  laws  and 
their  applications.  This  division  is  in  strict  accord  with  a 
prevailing  idea  of  the  Berlin  Conference,  that  those  leaving 
school  at  sixteen  should  have  as  symmetrical  training  as  it  is 
possible  to  provide.  Only  the  most  important  principles  are 
taught  in  the  first  part  of  the  course,  and  much  stress  is  put 


346  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

upon  the  application  of  these  to  the  practical  affairs  of  every- 
day life.1 

The  advanced  course  is  first  of  all  a  repetition  and  extension 
of  the  earlier  work,  and  in  the  second  place  a  more  extended 
mathematical  treatment  of  the  subject.  This  latter  phase 
of  the  work  can  be  done  successfully  only  in  the  Real-schools, 
inasmuch  as  the  mathematics  taught  in  most  Gymnasien  is  in- 
sufficient for  the  purpose.  The  Realgymnasium  of  Weimar, 
for  example,  provides  a  special  course  in  mathematics  during 
the  last  two  years  devoted  exclusively  to  mechanics.  Particu- 
lar attention  is  given  to  mathematical  geography  and  the  ele- 
ments of  astronomy. 

It  is  only  in  the  Oberrealschulen  that  a  separate  course  in 
chemistry  is  given  in  Untersecunda.  Other  schools  are  re- 
quested to  present  a  few  important  chemical 
facts  in  connection  with  the  study  of  galvanic 
electricity.  At  best,  but  little  can  be  done.  Organic  chem- 
istry and  its  applications  are  practically  untouched  in  all 
schools  ;  any  consideration  whatever  of  the  subject  must  be 
purely  incidental,  and  confined  to  those  processes  of  greatest 
practical  importance. 

Stoichiometry  is  the  one  branch  of  chemistry  which  is  thor- 
oughly taught,  and  it  is  the  mathematical  treatment  of  this 
branch  which  receives  most  attention.  Mineralogy  is  a  side 
issue  ;  so  far  as  I  have  observed,  it  amounts  to  little  more 
than  a  formal  study  of  crystallography. 

A  text-book  is  always  employed  in  teaching  physics  and 
chemistry,  precisely  in  the  same  manner  as  in  teaching  nat- 
ural history.  But,  unlike  the  methods  com- 
monly found  in  American  and  English  schools, 
German  teachers  invariably  use  these  books  for  reference 
only.  It  is  not  expected,  however,  that  they  will  take  the 
place  of  the  elaborate  compendiums  found  in  each  school- 
room ;  they  are  mere  outlines  of  the  subject,  intended  to  as- 

1  Full  information  of  what  may  be  accomplished  in  this  preliminary 
course  may  be  found  in  the  Zeitschrift  fur  den  physikalischen  und  chcmi- 
tchen  Untemcht,  Jahrgang  K,  Heft  4  (April,  1892). 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     347 

sist  the  pupil  in  making  scientific  classifications,  not  for  pur- 
poses of  recitation.  In  fact,  as  we  have  repeatedly  observed, 
the  German  teacher  never  assigns  a  lesson  in  advance  to  be 
studied  out  at  home.  Recitations,  therefore,  at  least  in  the 
American  sense,  are  unknown. 

A  typical  lesson  always  includes  a  review  of  the  principles 
and  experiments  of  past  lessons  which  have  a  direct  bear- 
ing upon  what  is  next  to  be  presented.  The 
teacher  explains  the  nature  of  the  apparatus 
with  which  he  is  to  deal,  and  places  it  upon  his 
desk  in  full  view  of  the  entire  class.  (It  may  be  observed,  in 
passing,  that  school-houses  of  recent  construction  have  a  lect- 
ure-room for  the  classes  in  physics  and  chemistry  in  which 
the  seats  are  elevated,  generally  in  a  semicircle  about  the 
teacher's  desk.)  Certain  conditions  are  stated,  and  the  class 
questioned  as  to  what  results  may  reasonably  be  expected. 
This  preliminary  discussion  having  carefully  prepared  the 
way  for  a  right  understanding  of  the  experiment,  the  demon- 
stration by  the  teacher  follows.  The  students  are  required 
to  make  note  of  the  apparatus  used,  the  principles  involved, 
the  conditions  under  which  the  reaction  occurred  and  the 
results  obtained.  By  means  of  a  running  fire  of  questions,  the 
teacher  keeps  himself  informed  in  regard  to  the  mental  state 
of  his  class ;  for  it  is  his  duty  to  see  not  only  that  all  under- 
stand the  trend  of  the  experiment,  but  also  that  its  signifi- 
cance is  realized. 

German  practice  is  always  consistent  in  its  adherence  to 
the  idea  that  good  teaching  never  leaves  the  pupil  in  doubt. 
In  mathematics  he  is  not  assigned  a  problem  to 
wrestle  with  by  himself  alone  ;  in  the  early  days 
of  his  language  study  all  the  translations  are 
made  in  class ;  and  even  in  natural  history  we  have  seen  how 
he  is  guided,  step  by  step,  first  in  making  his  observations 
and  then  in  describing  what  be  has  discovered. 

We  observe  the  same  facts  in  the  prevailing  methods  of 
teaching  physics  and  chemistry.  Every  principle  worth 
demonstrating  is  illustrated  in  class.  But  the  teacher  does 


348  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

more  than  demonstrate  ;  he  teaches  as  well.  And  successful 
teaching  requires  that  present  impressions  be  definitely  re- 
lated to  past  experiences.  Wrong  relationships,  or  none  at 
all,  are  an  inevitable  consequence  of  misapprehension.  For 
this  reason  the  German  teacher  counts  it  his  duty  to  prevent 
his  students  drawing  wrong  inferences.  They  have  not  yet 
arrived  at  the  stage  of  independent  study  ;  that  comes  in  the 
university.  In  the  secondary  schools  no  time  should  be  wasted 
in  beating  about  the  bush.  The  ability  to  make  an  occasional 
lucky  guess  is  in  nowise  identical  with  sustained  logical 
thought. 

At  the  conclusion  of  a  lesson  topic,  the  pupil  is  directed  to 
consult  his  text-book  and  afterward  write  up  his  notes.  This 
done,  the  teacher  inspects  the  book  at  his  leisure. 

Laboratory  exercises,  if  required  at  all,  are  introduced  at 

this  point,  in  order  that  students  may  themselves  duplicate 

the  experiment  performed  by  the  teacher  or 

Laboratory  Work.  J 

make  other  demonstrations  putting  to  practical 
test  the  knowledge  just  acquired.  The  function  of  laboratory 
practice,  as  will  be  seen,  is  to  make  application  of  facts 
already  learned,  not  at  all  for  the  purpose  of  presenting  new 
truths  or  arriving  at  new  deductions.  Inasmuch  as  laboratory 
practice  is  optional,  and  the  exigencies  of  the  time-card 
usually  place  it  out  of  school  hours,  few  students  enter 
for  it. 

No  harm  is  done,  however,  if  only  a  part  of  the  class  avail 
themselves  of  the  opportunity.  They  learn  something  there- 
by, to  be  sure ;  but  their  previous  knowledge  is  intensified 
rather  than  extended.  In  other  words,  the  certainty  of  pro- 
motion is  not  jeopardized  by  failure  to  elect  the  laboratory 
course. 

Probably  the  best  adducible  evidence  of  the  relative  value 
of  the  various  studies,  as  popularly  estimated,  is  the  part  each 

plays  in  the  final  examination.     Judged  in  this 
Examinations     wav>  *ne  8°iences  take  low  rank.     Physics  may 

be  counted  as  a  fourth  part  of  mathematics  in 
the  gymnasial  examination  ;  in  the  .ReaZ-schools,  one  problem 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     349 

is  assigned  in  physics  and  one  in  chemistry.1  The  worst  of  it 
is  that  "nothing  short  of  a  miracle,"  to  quote  a  German 
teacher,  "can  prevent  the  promotion  of  the  most  deficient 
member  of  the  class,  provided  his  attainments  be  satisfactory 
in  other  subjects." 

In  conclusion,  it  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  teaching  of 
science  in  the  German  secondary  schools  is  intended  primarily 
to  provide  formal  discipline  of  the  powers  of  observation,  of 
logical  thought  and  accurate  description.  Evidence  is  not 
wanting  to  show  that  the  sciences  are  not  taught  as  distinct 

1  The  problems  in  science  assigned  at  the  Abiturientenprufung  in  the 
Konigstadtisches  Realgymnasium,  Berlin,  were  as  follows  : 

Physics,  Michaelmas,  1895.  "  To  determine  the  internal  resistance  of 
a  Bunsen  battery  cell,  the  following  experiments  are  made  : 

"  (a)  In  one  arm  of  a  Wheatstone's  bridge  a  resistance  of  one  ohm  is  in- 
serted ;  in  the  other  arm,  a  rheostat.  The  galvanometer  needle  shows  no 
deviation  when  the  rheostat  resistance,  rj=4.5  turns  of  the  wire. 

"  (b)  There  is  now  introduced  into  one  arm  of  the  bridge  a  copper  wire 
whose  length,  1=9.8  meters,  and  whose  thickness,  d=l  millimeter;  and 
again  in  the  other  arm,  the  rheostat.  The  galvanometer  needle  now 
shows  no  deviation  when  the  rheostat  resistance,  ra=0.84  turns  of  the 
wire. 

"  (c)  Through  the  same  copper  wire,  and  through  a  tangent  galvanometer 
(joined  in  series),  a  current  is  led  by  means  of  the  Bunsen  cell  under 
investigation.  The  needle  of  the  tangent-galvanometer  now  shows  a  devia- 
tion, a,  =  17°  30'. 

"  (d)  A  second  and  like  Bunsen  cell  is  now  introduced  into  the  circuit  in 
series  with  the  first.  The  needle  now  shows  a  deviation,  at=25°. 

"  How  great,  according  to  these  experiments,  is  the  internal  resistance 
of  a  Bunsen  cell  ? 

"  Further,  how  great,  according  to  the  experimental  results  obtained,  is 
the  specific  resistance  of  copper  ? 

"  The  above  experiments — especially  the  arrangement  and  mode  of  oper- 
ation of  the  Wheatstone's  bridge — are  to  be  described  and  explained  by 
means  of  a  simple  diagrammatic  figure." 

Chemistry,  Easter,  1896.  "  The  description  of  the  most  important 
chemical  and  crystallographic  properties  of  silicic  acid,  and  the  explana- 
tion of  its  importance  in  the  plant  and  animal  kingdoms,  with  some  ex- 
amples." 


350  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

subjects,  but  as  a  means  of  assisting  the  individual  to  a  more 
complete  realization  of  his  environment.  Pedagogic  writers 
emphasize  repeatedly  the  futility  of  attempting 

to  &*ve  ^e  PreParatory  student  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  principles  even  of  a  single 
science  ;  this  is  the  work  of  the  university.  The  aim  of 
the  secondary  schools  should  be  to  provide  such  training 
as  will  enable  the  student  when  he  enters  upon  his  university 
career  to  begin  the  study  of  any  science  intelligently.  In 
other  words,  an  understanding  of  the  relations  existing  be- 
tween sciences  is  of  more  worth  than  an  extensive  knowledge 
of  any  one.  Therefore,  the  principles  of  biology  and  of 
physics,  properly  taught,  are  the  sole  requisite  for  entrance 
upon  university  work.  The  physical  conditions  under  which 
life  develops  are  an  important  accessory  to  the  study  of  bi- 
ology, and  the  principles  of  chemistry  supplement  advanta- 
geously the  teachings  of  physics. 

The  presence  of  laboratories  well  equipped  for  individual 
work,  and  supported  by  annual  appropriations,  in  most  Ger- 
man schools,  shows  that  the  present  method  of 

Recent  Tendencies.       .  ...  ,.  .  ,. 

science  teaching  is  a  reaction  against  earlier  no- 
tions concerning  the  function  of  laboratory  practice.  So  long 
as  the  aim  was  to  teach  the  sciences  per  se,  laboratory  work 
was  necessary  for  each  individual ;  but  with  the  advent  of  the 
idea  that  the  sciences  are  no  more  to  be  considered  independ- 
ent studies  than  other  subjects  of  the  curriculum,  and  that 
mental  development  of  the  pupil  is  of  more  consequence  than 
definite  information  in  any  one  subject,  class  instruction  at 
once  comes  into  the  foreground.  Laboratory  work  is  still 
counted  an  exercise  of  great  value,  but  its  aim  is  to  facili- 
tate application  rather  than  to  promote  individ- 
Vaiue  of  j  investigation.  The  right  use  of  the  induc- 

Laboratory.  .       . 

tive  method  by  no  means  shifts  the  responsibility 
from  the  teacher  to  the  pupil.  The  teacher  must  do  even 
more  teaching  ;  in  fact,  the  pupil  can  be  more  safely  trusted 
to  work  independently  along  deductive  lines  than  inductive. 
But  as  I  have  repeatedly  cautioned  the  reader  not  to  confound 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     351 

class  instruction  with  the  hearing  of  a  recitation,  no  one  will 
identify  the  German  method  of  teaching  science  with  certain 
practices  well-nigh  universal  in  America. 

We  may  criticise  the  methods  of  the  German  teacher  how 
we  will ;  we  may  disapprove  of  his  selection  of  subject-matter, 
his  apparatus,  laboratory  and  text-book ;  and 

**.  «.       "1  -ii  -A     Kesults  Attained. 

especially  we  may  refuse  to  recognise  the  legit- 
imacy of  his  aim  and  the  worth  of  his  ideals  ;  and  yet,  when 
all  is  said,  the  German  teacher  has  some  convincing  arguments 
in  store.  He  can  point  triumphantly  to  a  long  line  of  Ger- 
man scientists,  once  his  pupils.  He  will  tell  us  that  all  stu- 
dents entering  the  university  are  familiar  with  at  least  the 
elements  of  physical  and  biological  science  ;  that  this  work  has 
been  an  integral  part  of  their  school  training  for  nine  years  ; 
that  the  classical  students  are  broadened  by  contact  with  the 
real  studies,  and  that  the  scientific  men  are  more  liberal  for 
having  included  the  humanities  in  their  education.  The 
clinching  argument,  however — an  argument  convincing  at 
least  to  the  commercial  world — is  that  the  marvellous  indus- 
trial progress  of  Germany  in  the  last  quarter-century  is  due 
ultimately  to  the  superior  skill  and  wisdom  of  the  German 
scientists.  England  to-day — witness  the  recent  action  of  the 
government  in  promoting  the  teaching  of  science  and  the  res- 
olutions of  learned  societies  and  trade-unions — is  assured  that 
the  preservation  of  her  supremacy  in  the  markets  of  the  world 
is  largely  dependent  on  her  ability  to  train  up  such  scientists 
as  now  direct  the  development  of  the  industrial  arts  in  Ger- 
many. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — Rossmassler,  Der  natunzissenschaftliche  Un- 
terricht,  Leipsic,  1860;  Loew,  Die  Stellung  der  Schule  zu  naturw.  Un- 
terricht, Berlin,  1874 ;  Schwalbe,  Geschichte  und  Stand  der  Methodik  in 
den  Natururissenschaften,  Berlin,  1877;  Baenitz,  Der  naturw.  Unterricht 
an  gehob.  Lehranstalten,  Berlin,  2d  ed.,  1882;  Zwick,  Der  naturw.  Unter- 
richt, Berlin,  2d  ed.,  1884;  Piltz,  Aufgaben  und  Fragen  fur  Naturbeo- 
bachtung,  Weimar,  3d  ed.,  1887;  Zeitschrift  fur  den  physikalischen  und 
chemischen  Unterricht,  Berlin;  Baumeister,  Ifandbitch,Vo\.  IV.  ;  Encyclo- 
pedias of  Schmid  and  Rein ;  Schiller,  Praktische  Pddagogik. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

THE   PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS 

TEACHING  has  been  a  profession  in  Germany  since  the 
close  of  the  Napoleonic  wars.  The  first  decade  of  the  cen- 
tury marks  the  turning-point  from  the  old  re- 
</*me  t°  the  new.  Up  to  that  time  the  teachers 
had  been  either  novices  awaiting  holy  orders  or 
one-legged  veterans  unfitted  for  further  military  service.  At 
least,  such  instances  were  sufficiently  numerous  to  give  the 
impression  that  the  schools  were  philanthropic  institutions, 
designed  chiefly  to  afford  employment  to  those  who  might 
otherwise  become  public  charges. 

Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  Ratke  and  Comenius  had 
urged  the  necessity  of  having  trained  teachers  in  the  schools. 
In  1707  Francke  established  the  Seminarium 
Development  selectum  prceceptorum  in  Halle — the  outgrowth 
of  several  years  of  trial  in  the  training  of  teach- 
ers ;  and  under  his  influence  more  than  a  thousand  Volks- 
schulen  were  created  in  Prussia  by  Frederick  William  I.,  and 
placed  under  teachers  nominated,  as  far  as  possible,  by 
Francke  himself.  Under  Frederick  the  Great  the  policy  of 
securing  trained  teachers  for  the  elementary  schools  was  ad- 
hered to,  and  teachers'  seminaries  became  a  necessary  part  of 
the  public  school  system.  The  next  important  step  was 
taken  in  1763,  when  Frederick  the  Great  ordered  that  all  teach- 
ers should  be  required  to  pass  a  state  examination  in  certain 
specified  subjects,  and  that  only  those  persons  who  had  been 
trained  in  the  Berlin  Seminary  should  be  eligible  for  ap- 
pointment as  teachers  in  elementary  schools  supported  by  the 

352 


THE  PROFESSIONAL   TRAINING   OF  TEACHERS     353 

crown.  It  is  certain  that  the  regulations  of  Frederick  the 
Great  made  a  great  advance  in  the  condition  of  the  public 
schools  and  in  the  position  of  the  teachers ;  but,  so  long  as 
there  were  non-public  schools,  many  of  them  entirely  re- 
moved from  government  influence,  whose  teachers  were  ap- 
pointed by  the  church  or  private  patrons,  there  could  be  no 
standards  applicable  to  all.  It  was  the  Allgemeine  Landrecht 
of  1794  that  finally  declared  all  schools  to  be  state  institu- 
tions, and  at  all  times  subject  to  the  inspection  and  examina- 
t;on  of  the  state. 

The  complete  secularization  of  the  secondary  schools  fol- 
lowed tardily  after  the  emancipation  of  the  elementary 
schools  from  ecclesiastical  control.  Appli-  separation  of 
cants  for  positions  in  the  higher  schools  were  school  and 
required  to  show  their  fitness  by  examination 
or  otherwise  even  prior  to  1790,  but  the  clergy  still  main- 
tained the  upper  hand.  In  1779  Frederick'  the  Great  struck 
the  first  serious  blow  at  clerical  influence  ;  he  decreed  that 
henceforth  "  philosophy  should  be  taught  in  the  higher 
schools  only  by  laymen."  All  during  the  century  able  school- 
masters had  been  trained  in  the  Seminarium  in  Halle,  and 
they  were  men  of  influence  in  the  state.  Many  students  of 
Gottingen,  between  the  years  1735  and  1775,  fell  under  the 
spell  of  Gesner  and  Heyne,  and  thereby  grew  into  enthusi- 
astic teachers  of  the  classics.  Indeed,  the  Zeitgeist  of  the 
last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  decidedly  helpful  in 
promoting  an  interest  in  the  work  of  the  classical  schools  for 
its  own  sake  ;  and  just  as  the  work  of  the  schools  was  appre- 
ciated for  its  own  sake  did  the  social  rank  of  the  teachers  rise 
in  importance.  But  still  it  was  lamentably  true  that  the  ex- 
amination for  teachers'  certificates  was  the  examination  for 
holy  orders. 

The  death  of  Frederick  the  Great,  in  1786,  left  many  of 
his  plans  for  the  improvement  of  the  higher  schools  unfin- 
ished. His  successor,  however,  established  in  the  first  year 
of  his  reign  an  Oberschulcollegium,  which  was  given  the 
supervision  of  secondary  education  in  the  kingdom.  A  year 

23 


354  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

later,  in  1788,  it  was  decreed  that  students  should  take  a  final 

examination  on  leaving  the  Gymnasien  ;  in  1812  the  require- 

workof       ment  was  made  obligatory  and  universal.     In 

Frederick  the  this  way  the  government  ascertained  the  qual- 
ity of  secondary  -  school  work,  but  students 
might  enter  the  university  and  study  for  the  learned  profes- 
sions whether  they  passed  this  examination  or  not.  Indeed, 
not  till  1834  was  it  finally  settled  that  the  certificate  of  grad- 
uation from  a  higher  school  was  an  essential  prerequisite  for 
admission  to  the  university,  and  eventually  to  the  professions 
and  the  higher  grades  of  the  civil  service. 

By  the  establishment  of  the  Oberschulcollegium  the  church 
was  deprived  of  some  important  prerogatives ;  still  others 
were  taken  away  by  the  Allgemeine  Landrecht 
of  1794  5  but  the  comPlete  emancipation  of  the 
teacher  from  ecclesiastical  control  was  secured 
in  1810,  by  an  order  requiring  of  all  intending  teachers  in  the 
higher  schools  an  examination  separate  and  distinct  from  the 
examination  for  admission  to  holy  orders.  However  easy 
the  step  might  he  for  a  theological  student  to  become  a 
higher-school  teacher,  yet  it  was  a  step  that  he  had  to  take  ; 
and  he  had  to  take  it  just  as  other  candidates  did — by  exam- 
ination before  a  board  of  teachers.  Then  teaching  became  a 
profession,  and  the  teacher  a  highly  honoured  member  of  the 
civil  service.  Every  subsequent  enactment  has  been  to  in- 
crease the  dignity  of  the  profession,  and  to  make  its  honours 
more  difficult  of  attainment.  Every  decade  has  seen  some 
additional  requirement  made  of  those  who  would  enter  the 
ranks ;  and  with  every  decade  there  have  come  increased 
emoluments  and  social  advantages  of  a  nature  to  invite 
service.  The  result  is  the  best  equipped  and  most  exclusive 
body  of  teachers  in  the  world. 

One  of  the  striking  peculiarities  of  German  social  life,  as 
viewed  from  the  American  stand-point,  is  that  the  average 
boy  in  his  teens,  or  even  earlier,  knows  precisely  what  his 
life  work  is  to  be.  Long  before  he  leaves  school  he  begins 
to  shape  his  course  for  the  profession  that  he  has  in  view  j 


THE  PROFESSIONAL   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  .  355 

indeed,  it  is  probable  that  the  most  important  decision  of  his 
life  is  made  when  he  enters  school  at  nine  years  of  age.  And 
with  each  succeeding  school  year  the  range  of 
possible  choices  steadily  diminishes.  It  is  im- 
portant,  therefore,  that  parents  early  decide 
upon  the  course  of  study  best  suited  to  their  children,  and 
that  the  children  themselves  fully  realize  the  bearing  of  their 
school  work  on  their  subsequent  careers. 

The  student  of  the  Gymnasium  knows  that  he  has  the 
privilege,  among  others,  of  preparing  himself  for  any  position 
in  the  higher  schools  ;  the.graduate  of  the  Real- 

°  Privileges. 

gymnasium  may  become  a  teacher  of  the  mod- 
ern languages,  mathematics  or  the  natural  sciences  ;  and  but 
recently  the  privilege  of  becoming  a  teacher  of  mathematics 
and  the  natural  sciences  has  been  conferred  on  graduates  of 
the  Oberrealschule. 

The  professional  training  of  the  higher-school  teacher 
really  begins  with  the  university  course.  Although  gradu- 
ation from  a  higher  school  is  an  essential  pre- 
requisite, it  is  only  in  the  university  that  he 
gets  the  special  training  required  of  all  candi- 
dates for  positions  in  the  secondary  schools.  The  minimum 
course  in  the  university,  as  required  in  most  German  states, 
is  set  at  three  years  ;  but  four  or  five  years  are  nearer  the 
average.  The  student,  on  coming  up  to  the  university, 
knows  full  well  what  profession  he  is  to  follow  ;  and  the  in- 
tending teacher  has  his  specialties  already  in  mind.  In  gen- 
eral, the  greater  part  of  his  work  is  directed  to  those  subjects 
which  he  expects  to  teach,  or,  better,  to  those  subjects  in 
which  he  will  later  be  examined.  But  there  is  no  prescribed 
course  which  he  is  bound  to  follow.  For  a  year  or  two  he 
follows  his  own  personal  inclinations,  without  overmuch 
thought  of  the  future — sometimes  without  overmuch  atten- 
tion even  to  the  present.  In  time,  however,  he  falls  into  the 
routine  which  invariably  marks  the  preparation  for  the  state 
examination. 

The  Staats-Examen  is  the  sole  test  of  a  candidate's  prepara- 


356  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

tion  for  any  professional  career.  Neither  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  philosophy,  nor  any  other  scholarly  distinction,  can  ex- 
empt him  from  the  necessity  of  proving  himself 
Examination  before  a  state  board  of  examiners.  In  the 
smaller  German  states  these  boards  are  gen- 
erally located  at  the  capital  or  in  the  university  towns  ;  some 
states  have  none  at  all,  having  delegated  their  prerogatives  to 
the  boards  of  adjoining  states.  Prussia  maintains  ten  ex- 
amining boards  for  the  higher-school  service,  called  Wissen- 
schaftliche  Prilfungs-Commissionen.  The  majority  of  the 
members  of  these  boards  are  university  professors  ;  but  there 
are  usually  a  few  prominent  secondary-school  men  and  ad- 
ministrative officers  of  the  department  of  education  among 
the  members.  They  are  appointed  annually  by  the  minister 
of  education,  but  in  practice  there  are  few  changes  for  years 
together.  There  is  no  prescribed  number  of  members,  ex- 
cept that  there  must  be  at  least  one  examiner  for  every  sub- 
ject that  a  candidate  may  offer  ;  this  means,  as  a  rule,  from 
twenty  to  thirty  persons. 

The  aim  of  the  state  examination  is  to  test  (1)  the  appli- 
cant's proficiency  in  pedagogy   and   philosophy,   including 
psychology,  logic  and  ethics  ;  (2)  his  familiar- 
ity with  the  German  language  and  literature  ; 

(3)  his  acquaintance  with  the  doctrines  of  his  religion,  and 

(4)  his  knowledge  of  the  subjects  which  he  expects  to  teach. 
In  all  these  lines,  possibly  excepting  religion,  he  will  have 
had  special  training  under  university  professors.     In  philos- 
ophy and  pedagogy,  in  German  and  in  religion,  the  require- 
ments are  of  a  general  nature,  intended  to  disclose  the  appli- 
cant's breadth   of  training  and  the  nature  of  his  religious 
faith  ;  it  is  the  fourth  requirement  that  constitutes  the  crux 
of  the  examination. 

A  certificate  based  upon  the  state  examination  does  not 
by  any  means  permit  the  holder  to  teach  what  he  will  any- 
where he  gets  the  chance.  Under  the  Prussian  system,  a 
teacher,  in  addition  to  the  requirements  above  mentioned, 
mast  be  qualified  in  at  least  four  subjects  or  their  equiva- 


THE  PROFESSIONAL   TRAINING   OF  TEACHERS     357 

lents,  and  he  must  not  presume  to  teach  anything  in  which 
he  is  not  properly  certificated.  Furthermore,  he  may  not 
teach  those  subjects  in  which  he  is  certificated 
beyond  a  certain  class,  that  class  being  deter-  certificates 
mined  by  the  grade  of  his  certificate.  Three 
grades  are  recognised  ;  these  correspond  to  the  three  general 
divisions — upper,  middle  and  lower — of  the  higher  schools. 
A  first-grade  certificate  in  any  subject  is  good  for  any  class 
in  a  nine-year  school ;  a  second-grade  is  good  for  all  classes 
below  the  three  highest ;  a  third-grade  is  good  only  for  the 
lower  classes.  Third-grade  certificates  are  granted  only  in 
those  subjects  which  are  taught  in  the  higher  schools  the 
full  nine  years.  Thus,  in  Latin,  German,  French,  religion, 
history,  mathematics  and  geography  certificates  may  be  of 
the  first,  second  or  third  grade  ;  in  Greek,  English,  Hebrew, 
Polish,  Danish,  physics,  chemistry  and  mineralogy,  botany 
and  zoology,  of  the  first  or  second  grade.  Applicants  for  cer- 
tificates may  enter,  under  certain  restrictions,  for  any  subject 
and  any  grade  in  that  subject. 

The  subjects  which  are  taught  in  the  higher  schools — 
therefore  those  in  which  state  examinations  may  be  taken — 
are  classed  in  two  general  groups  :  the  lan- 
guage-history group,  and  the  science-mathe- 
matics  group.  The  former  includes  German, 
Latin,  Greek,  French,  English  and  history ;  the  latter  in- 
cludes mathematics,  physics,  chemistry  and  mineralogy, 
botany  and  zoology  ;  geography  of  the  first  or  second  grade 
may  be  classed  in  either  group.  Hebrew,  Polish,  Danish 
and  religion  are  extra  subjects,  properly  belonging  to  the  first 
group.  Of  the  four  subjects  in  which  every  teacher  is  ex- 
amined, the  first  two  are  known  as  majors  (ffauptf acker) — 
those  which  he  prefers  to  teach  ;  the  other  two  are  minors 
(Nebenfdcher).  Now,  in  order  that  the  most  favourable  com- 
binations may  be  made — favourable  both  for  the  schools  and 
the  teachers'  scholarship — certain  restrictions  are  placed  upon 
a  free  choice.  The  most  important  are  the  following :  (1) 
both  majors  and  one  minor  must  be  of  the  same  group ;  (2) 


358  QEllMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

first-grade  Latin  goes  with  second-grade  Greek,  and  second- 
grade  Latin  with  first-grade  Greek  ;  (3)  first-grade  mathe- 
matics takes  second-grade  physics ;  (4)  third-grade  Latin  is 
required  with  any  grade  of  French  or  English  ;  (5)  third-grade 
geography  mast  be  taken  with  any  grade  in  history ;  (6)  a 
major  in  religion  takes  Hebrew  as  its  accompanying  major. 
Geography,  placed,  as  it  is,  in  both  groups,  is  always  a  pop- 
ular minor  ;  it  may  also  be  counted  a  major  in  either  group. 

The  university  student  who  looks  forward  to  teaching  as 
a  profession  early  selects  the  combination  of  subjects  which 
he  prefers  to  teach,  or  which  is  likely  to  bring 
most  rapid  promotion.  To  these  subjects  he 
gives  his  main  attention  for  three  to  five  years. 
If  he  can  afford  the  luxury  of  taking  his  Ph.D — it  costs 
from  one  hundred, to  two  hundred  dollars  and  a  good  deal  of 
time — he  will,  in  the  meantime,  write  a  dissertation  and  be 
examined  on  three  of  his  four  subjects.  That  the  degree  is 
looked  upon  as  a  luxury,  and  one  that  can  be  easily  dispensed 
with,  is  evidenced  from  the  fact  that  less  than  one-half  of 
the  Prussian  teachers  have  taken  the  pains  to  secure  it.  The 
Staats-Examen  is  not  only  more  difficult,  but  more  honour- 
able, because  obligatory. 

There  are  in  Prussia  ten  State  Examination  Commissions,1 
located  in  the  university  towns.  An  applicant  for  examina- 
tion cannot  come  before  any  of  these  at  will. 
He  must  ch°ose  the  commission  (1)  of  the 
province  in  which  he  was  born  or  in  which  he 
resides,  or  (2)  of  the  province  in  which  the  university  is  situ- 
ated where  he  has  spent  at  least  two  semesters,  including  the 
last,  or  (3)  of  the  province  in  which  he  expects  to  teach.  All 
foreigners,  including  residents  of  other  German  states,  must 
secure  the  endorsement  of  the  minister  of  education  to  their 
application. 

1  East  and  West  Prussia,  at  Konigsberg ;  Brandenburg,  at  Berlin ;  Pom- 
crania,  at  (ireifswald ;  Posen  and  Silesia,  at  Breslau ;  Saxony,  at  Halle ; 
Schleswick-Holstein,  at  Kiel;  Hanover,  at  Gottingcn;  Westphalia,  at 
Monster ;  Hesse-Nassau,  at  Marburg ;  lluine  province,  at  Bonn. 


THE  PROFESSIONAL   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS     359 

The  application  itself  is  a  serious  affair.  First  there  is  the 
fee  to  be  paid,  which  amounts  to  $7.50  (30  m.)  for  each  ex- 
amination and  re-examination ;  $3.75  (15  m.)  for 
each  supplementary  and  extension  examination. 
Then  there  are  the  certificates  and  testimonials 
of  the  applicant's  higher-school  course  and  his  university 
training,  without  which  no  one  can  hope  to  be  admitted,  un- 
less by  special  order  of  the  minister.  These  papers  show 
precisely  what  he  has  done,  and  how  well  he  has  succeeded 
since  he  entered  school  at  nine  years  of  age.  Next  he 
makes  known  his  combination  of  subjects  which  he  elects  as 
majors  and  minors,  and  the  grade  of  examination  which  he 
desires  in  each.  In  his  Vita,  which  is  next  in  order,  the  ap- 
plicant tells  who  he  is,  when  he  was  born,  what  the  rank  or 
occupation  of  his  father  is,  of  what  church  he  is  an  ad- 
herent, and,  finally,  he  calls  attention  to  special  points  in 
his  preparation  and  any  noteworthy  work  that  he  may  have 
done.  This  sketch  of  his  life  must  be  written  in  Latin,  if 
the  applicant's  major  subjects  are  the  classical  languages ;  if 
they  are  the  modern  languages,  it  must  be  in  French  or  Eng- 
lish; in  all  other  cases  it  is  optional  whether  it  be  in  German 
or  a  foreign  language. 

After  review  of  the  application  thus  made,  the  commission- 
ers decide  upon  admission  to  the  examination.  If  the  appli- 
cant's preparation  seems  faulty,  they  advise  him 

•'          r.  Admission. 

not  to  attempt  the  examination ;  if  they  have 
serious  doubts  as  to  his  moral  character,  if  they  suspect  him 
of  being  disloyal  in  religion  or  politics,  they  may  refuse  his 
application  altogether,  in  which  case  an  appeal  may  be  taken 
to  the  minister — if  the  applicant  doesn't  mind  courting  al- 
most sure  defeat.  If  his  credentials  are  acceptable,  however, 
he  is  soon  notified  when  to  appear  for  examination. 

The  examination  is  both  oral  and  written.  The  written 
test  comes  first,  and  consists  in  the  writing  of  elaborate  essays 
on  themes  assigned  by  the  commission.  One  theme  is  on 
some  topic  in  philosophy  or  pedagogy,  and  is  designed  to 
test  the  candidate's  knowledge  of  the  philosophical  basis  of 


360  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

pedagogy  and  didactics,  and  of  the  development  of  educa- 
tional thought  since  the  sixteenth  century.  The  applications 
of  modern  psychology  to  teaching  are  fruitful 
^emes  for  such  essays.  The  candidate  must 
also  write  essays  on  themes  selected  from  each  of 
his  major  subjects.  When  one  essay  will  include  both  major 
subjects,  the  two  may  be  combined,  as  frequently  happens  in 
classical  and  modern  philology,  physics  and  mathematics, 
history  and  geography,  etc.  If  the  applicant  has  published 
something  of  note,  as,  for  instance,  a  dissertation  for  the  de- 
gree of  doctor  of  philosophy,  it  may  be  offered  as  a  substitute 
for  one  of  the  essays.  Essays  that  deal  with  a  classical  lan- 
guage must  be  written  in  Latin  ;  with  the  modern  languages, 
in  French  or  English,  as  the  case  may  be  ;  and  with  all  other 
subjects,  in  German.  Six  weeks  are  allowed  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  each  essay,  and  the  commission  is  empowered  to  grant 
an  extension  of  six  weeks — making  twelve  weeks  in  all,  if 
necessary,  on  the  subject.  Any  further  extension  must  be 
authorized  by  the  minister. 

At  the  expiration  of  the  time  allowed  the  essay  is  forward- 
ed to  the  chairman  of  the  commission,  together  with  a  com- 
plete bibliography  of  references  consulted,  and 
a  declaration  by  the  candidate  that  he  has  re- 
ceived no  personal  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  the  essay. 
A  false  declaration  would  disqualify  a  candidate  for  further 
examination  ;  if  the  fraud  were  not  detected  till  after  the 
certificate  had  been  granted,  disciplinary  proceedings  would 
be  instituted  as  against  any  other  state  official.  If  the  essays 
are  not  comprehensive  enough  to  satisfy  the  commission  of 
the  candidate's  breadth  of  scholarship,  supplementary  tests 
may  be  required  by  way  of  short  written  examinations  or 
laboratory  work.  Thus  the  candidate  shows  his  familiarity 
with  the  literature  of  his  subjects  and  demonstrates  his  abil- 
ity to  do  independent  work. 

If  now  the  written  examination  satisfies  the  commission, 
and  the  candidate  appears  not  to  be  an  atheist  or  a  socialist, 
a  day  is  set  for  the  oral  examination.  It  is  an  open  secret  that 


few  Jews  reach  this  stage,  no  matter  what  their  qualifications 
may  be ;  and  those  who  do  succeed  in  overcoming  all  prelimi- 
nary hindrances  are,  nevertheless,  quietly  dis- 
posed of  at  a  later  stage  in  a  way  to  minimize 
their  influence.      The  Prussian  examination  system,  as  act- 
ually conducted,  is  designed  primarily  to  keep  undesirable 
persons  out  of  the  profession  ;  there  are  many  requirements 
that  would  not  be  made  if  the  sole  object  were  to  secure  the 
best  teachers. 

The  oral  examination  is  intended  to  test  the  general  cult- 
ure of  the  candidate  and  his  ready  command  of  philosophy 
and  pedagogy,  and  to  ascertain  his  fitness  to  teach  his  chosen 
subjects  in  a  higher  school.  The  examination  in  each  sub- 
ject is  conducted  by  a  specially  appointed  examiner,  in  the 
presence  of  other  members  of  the  commission.  Candidates 
for  first-grade  certificates  in  Latin  or  English,  or  for  first  or 
second-grades  in  French,  must  nse  the  respective  languages 
in  examination,  at  least  to  the  extent  of  showing  a  ready 
command  of  the  spoken  forms.  Thus  the  candidate  shows 
what  he  knows  as  well  as  what  he  can  do. 

The  oral  test  concludes  the  examination.     The  commission- 
ers now  decide  whether  the  total  examination  has  been  satis- 
factory or  not.     If  any  part  is  unsatisfactory, 
no  certificate  is  granted;  but,  instead/ a  testi-      certificate, 
mouial  is  issued  to  the  candidate,  which  spec- 
ifies the   exact  results  attained   in  each  subject,  the  grade 
secured  in  all  subjects  that  were  passed,  and  the  day  (never 
within  six  months)  when  the  candidate  may  come  up  for 
re-examination.     The  second  trial  is  his  last,  if  he  again  fails 
to  meet  the  minimum  requirements. 

The  successful  candidate  not  only  receives  a  certificate  of 
fitness  to  teach  (facuUas  docendi)  certain  subjects   in  spec- 
ified classes ;  but  his  certificate  is  ranked  ac- 
cording to  the  grades  he  holds  in  the  varioijs      coruscate 
subjects  in  which  he  is  examined.     A  first-rank 
certificate,  which  renders  the  holder  eligible  at  some  future 
time  for  appointment  to  the  position  of  head-teacher,  with 


862  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

the  title  of  professor,  indicates  that  the  holder  has  secured 
upon  examination  either  two  majors  of  first-grade  and  two 
minors  of  second-grade,  or  two  majors  and  one  minor  of  first- 
grade.  A  second-rank  certificate,  which  entitles  the  holder 
to  the  position  of  ordinary  teacher  (Oberlehrer),  indicates  the 
possession  of  two  majors  and  one  minor  of  second-grade  and 
one  minor  of  third-grade.  In  other  words,  the  person  hold- 
ing a  first-rank  certificate  is  entitled  to  teach  (1)  two  subjects 
in  all  classes  and  other  two  subjects  in  the  lower  six  classes, 
or  (2)  three  subjects  through  all  nine  years  of  the  higher 
schools.  The  second-rank  certificate  entitles  the  holder  to 
teach  three  subjects  through  the  first  six  years,  and  one 
subject  through  the  first  three  years.  A  certificate  of  the 
second  rank,  therefore,  excludes  the  holder  from  teaching 
in  the  three  highest  classes  of  the  higher  schools,  and  denies 
him  the  honour  reserved  for  head-teachers. 

If  the  candidate  has  been  successful  in  both  majors,  but 
has  failed  in  his  minors,  he  may  be  granted  a  second-rank 
certificate  on  condition  that  he  secure  by  supplementary  ex- 
amination second-grade  in  both  minors  or  first-grade  in  one. 
Such  deficiency  must  be  made  up  within  three  years  from 
the  date  of  the  first  examination.  Supplementary  examina- 
tions must  be  taken  before  the  same  commission  as  was  the 
first  examination,  unless  the  minister  of  education  gives  the 
candidate  permission  to  apply  elsewhere.  Only  one  such  ex- 
amination is  permitted. 

It  will  be  seen  that  a  teacher's  chances  of  securing  a  posi- 
tion are  limited  (1)  by  the  subjects  in  which  he  is  certificated 
and  (2)  by  the  rank  of  his  total  certificate. 
Grate  amTRank.  ^n  unfortunate  combination  of  subjects  often 
seriously  interferes  with  the  promotion  of  a 
candidate.  It  happens,  therefore,  that  many  teachers  seek 
to  qualify  themselves  in  as  many  subjects  as  possible,  and  to 
secure  the  highest  grades  in  each.  Such  persons  are  per- 
mitted to  take  two  extension  examinations  before  the  com- 
missions by  which  they  were  first  examined,  or  before  the 
commissions  of  the  provinces  in  which  they  are  teaching. 


THE  PROFESSIONAL   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS     363 

The  second  extension  examination  closes  the  door  on  further 
opportunity.  The  limit  is  practically  fixed  at  four  or  five 
first-grade  certificates ;  few  teachers,  in  fact,  ever  secure 
more  than  three.  The  only  incentive  to  add  to  the  number 
of  privileges  is  that  thereby  an  appointment  may  possibly  be 
secured  a  year  or  two  earlier.  The  game  is  hardly  worth  the 
candle. 

The  intending  teacher,  even  with  his  certificate  in  his  hand, 
has  yet  other  gauntlets  to  run.  The  certificate  of  itself  con- 
fers no  right  to  teach.  Something  more  than 
general  culture  and  minute  scholarship  is  re- 
quired.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  Germany  owes 
more  to  the  pedagogical  training  of  her  teachers  than  to  any 
other  factor  in  their  preparation.  It  is  the  professional 
spirit,  which  every  German  teacher  feels,  that  differentiates 
him  from  his  species  in  other  countries,  and  this  spirit  is  the 
result  chiefly  of  his  pedagogical  training. 

When  the  examination  pro  facilitate  docendiwas  first  estab- 
lished, in  1810,  it  was  specified  that  all  candidates  should 
demonstrate  their  ability  to  teach  by  giving  a 

.    J.          ,  ,        mf-  Early  Attempts. 

lesson  before  the  examining  board.  Ihis  plan 
was  soon  found  to  be  impracticable  ;  few  candidates  could 
make  a  respectable  showing.  Afterward  the  trial  lesson  was 
given  in  private  before  a  school  inspector,  but  even  this  was 
unsatisfactory.  Consequently,  in  1826  the  Prussian  govern- 
ment introduced  the  plan,  which  has  since  been  adopted  by 
all  the  German  states  except  Wiirtemberg,  of  requiring  all 

candidates,  after  the  completion  of  the  exam- 
Trial  Lesson, 
ination  pro  facilitate  docendi  to  spend  a  year 

as  trial  teacher  (Probe-Candidat)  in  some  approved  higher 
school.  The  Probejahr,  as  we  learn  from  a  ministerial  re- 
script of  18G7,  was  intended  to  give  the  intending  teacher 
an  opportunity  to  familiarize  himself  with  the  duties  of  his 
future  office,  and  to  prove  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  school 
authorities  that  he  had  the  practical  ability  requisite  for  a 
successful  teacher.  Candidates  were  expected  to  teach  six  or 
eight  hours  a  week  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the 


364  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

director  or  head-teachers  of  the  school.  Besides  this,  there 
were  special  requirements  concerning  the  visiting  of  classes 
taught  by  the  regular  teachers,  preparation  of  lessons,  super- 
vision of  scholars,  attendance  at  examinations  and  teachers' 
conferences  and  participation  in  all  the  practical  workings 
of  the  school. 

The  Probejahr  proved  in  time  to  be  insufficient  for  the  de- 
mands placed  upon  it.  Too  many  candidates  were  seeking 
appointment  to  the  higher  schools.  Something 
had  to  be  done  to  shut  out  undesirable  persons, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  raise  the  standards  of  professional 
attainments.  In  point  of  didactic  skill  it  was  recognised 
that  the  elementary  teachers  trained  in  the  normal  schools 
(Lehrerseminarien)  were  distinctly  superior  to  the  teachers  of 
the  secondary  schools.  It  was  decided,  therefore,  to  lengthen 
the  term  of  practical  training  rather  than  to  increase  the 
scholastic  requirements.  Following  the  example  of  Hesse,  it 
was  decreed  in  1890  that  intending  teachers  in  the  higher 
schools  of  Prussia  should  have  two  years  of 
pedagogical  training  instead  of  one.  The  last 
year  was  to  remain  much  as  before,  and  still  to  be  known  as 
the  Probejahr.  The  first  year  of  practical  training,  following 
directly  after  the  state  examination,  was  intended  to  bridge 
over  the  gulf  between  the  university  and  actual  school  work. 
Candidates  were  to  be  assigned  to  Seminarien,  where  they 
might  have  the  advantage  of  superior  instruction  in  the 
art  of  applying  the  general  principles  of  education — already 
studied  in  the  university — to  the  practical  problems  of  the 
secondary  school?.  The  bulk  of  the  work  was  expected  to 
be  theoretical,  but  always  to  be  presented  with  a  view  to  its 
practical  application. 

Such  are  the  specific  requirements  at  the  present  time  of 
all  intending  higher-school  teachers  in  Prussia :  nine  years  a 
pupil  in  a  higher  school,  four  years  of  univer- 
sity  study,  one  year  in  examination,  one  Semi- 
narjahr,  and  one  Probejahr.  If  to  this  we  add 
the  year  of  military  service,  which  all  able-bodied  men  must 


THE  PROFESSIONAL   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS     365 

perform,  we  find  that  the  minimum  requirements  demand 
seventeen  years  in  preparation ;  it  is  oftener  eighteen  or 
twenty  years.  Only  a  few  of  the  German  states  have  as  yet 
adopted  the  Prussian  plan,  in  introducing  the  Seminar  jahr  ; 
but  where  Prussia  leads  the  others  are  sure  to  follow — if  only 
at  a  respectful  distance. 

The  Prussian  Seminarien,  to  which  candidates  are  assigned 
on  passing  the  examination  pro  facilitate  docendi,  are  of  two 
kinds  :  (1)  those  under  the  immediate  direction 
of  the  provincial  school-boards,  twelve  in  all —       Prussian 

Seminars. 

two  in  Berlin,  and  one  each  in  Breslau,  Gottiug- 
en,  Konigsberg,  Magdeburg,  Stettin,  Posen,  Dantzic,  Cassel, 
Minister  and  Coblentz  ;  (2)  those  instituted  by  ministerial 
rescript  of  March  15,  1890,  which  are  connected  with  the 
leading  Gymnasien  and  Realgymnasien,  and  are  each  under 
the  direction  of  the  director  and  one  or  two  associated  head- 
teachers  of  the  school. 

The  Seminarien  of  the  first  class  are  state  institutions  on 
special  foundations,  many  of  them  having  a  specific  purpose, 
as  the  training  of  teachers  of  religion,  of  modern 
languages,  etc.  These  royal  Seminarien  admit 
few  candidates,  and,  as  a  rule,  all  members  re- 
ceive valuable  stipends.  The  twelve  institutions  together  do 
not  have  more  than  seventy  members,  but  all  are  picked  men. 

For  some  time  prior  to  1890  the  average  number  of  candi^ 
dates  for  the  Probejalir  in  Prussia  had  been  over  five  hundred 
annually.  Since  the  introduction  of  the  Sem- 
inar'jahr ,  however,  the  number  has  steadily 
decreased.  In  1894-1895  there  were  only  one 
hundred  and  ninety-two  persons  in  the  Seminar  jahr  and 
two  hundred  and  twelve  in  the  Probejalir.  Hence  only 
about  thirty  gyranasial  Seminarien,  of  the  seventy  that  were 
planned,  have  been  needed.  These,  as  above  stated,  are  un- 
der the  direction  of  principals  of  higher  schools,  who  are 
relieved  of  about  one-fourth  of  their  regular  teaching  in 
order  that  they  may  have  time  for  this  work. 

During  the  Seminar  jahr  two  main  objects  are  kept  always 


366  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

in  view — a  clear  understanding  of  pedagogical  and  didactic 
principles,  and  an  introduction  to  the  practical  workings  of  a 

higher  school.     Once  a  week  the  Director  leads 
The Tn  ning    a  djscussion  on  SOme  pedagogical  topic,  with  a 

view  to  a  hetter  understanding  of  its  practical 
application  to  teaching.  The  members  of  the  Seminar  mean- 
while are  observing  the  teaching  of  various  masters,  and  after 
the  first  three  months  are  themselves  permitted  to  give  two 
or  three  lessons  a  week.  The  Director,  or  some  member  of 
the  faculty  delegated  by  him,  hears  all  these  lessons  and 
guides  the  young  teachers'  work.  From  time  to  time  special 
lessons  are  given,  which  are  attended  by  all  the  members  of  the 
Seminar,  and  by  the  director  and  his  associates.  The  teacher 
presents  the  lesson  according  to  a  previously  prepared  out- 
line, copies  of  which  are  in  the  hands  of  the  critics  during 
the  progress  of  the  lesson.  Then  comes  the  criticism,  in 
which  the  teacher  first  gives  his  views  of  his  own  work,  fol- 
lowed by  the  other  members  of  the  Seminar;  the  director 
sums  up  the  discussion,  and  points  out  possibilities  of  future 
improvement.  Throughout  the  year  the  young  teachers  are 
instructed  in  the  use  of  special  school  apparatus,  books  and 
other  teachers'  helps  ;  they  attend  all  faculty  meetings,  have 
a  share  in  the  oversight  of  pupils  and  are  inducted  into  the 
mysteries  of  the  final  examinations.  Three  months  before 
the  close  of  the  school-year  each  member  of  the  Seminar 
hands  in  a  dissertation  on  some  subject  closely  connected  with 
his  previous  work.  The  director  thereupon  makes  an  ex- 
haustive report  to  the  provincial  school-board  of  the  year's 
work,  in  which  the  abilities  of  the  various  candidates  are 
passed  in  review.  On  the  basis  of  these  returns  and  the 
records  of  the  examination  pro  facilitate  docendi,  the  inspec- 
tors (Oberschulrate)  advance  the  candidates  to  their  Probe- 
jahr,  or  refuse  altogether  to  give  them  further  training  as 
men  unfitted  for  the  teachers'  profession. 

Of  the  noted  institutions  of  Germany  designed  for  the 
training  of  teachers  for  the  secondary  schools  may  be  men- 
tioned the  University  Seminarien  of  Jena,  Leipsic  and 


THE  PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS     367 

G lessen.  The  first  named  is  well  known  in  this  country 
from  its  director,  Professor  Rein,  and  bears  a  deservedly  good 
name  at  home  because  of  the  progressive  school- 
masters that  it  has  sent  out.  Unfortunately, 
however,  its  influence  is  more  on  the  side  of 
elementary  education ;  the  training  school,  which  is  also 
under  the  direction  of  Professor  Rein,  is  composed  of  folk- 
school  pupils  ;  and  the  practical  problems  that 
come  up  for  discussion  are  almost  invariably  the 
problems  of  the  lower  schools.  It  cannot  be  said,  I  think, 
that  the  Jena  Seminar,  at  least  under  Professor  Rein's  ad- 
ministration, has  exercised  any  great  influence  on  the  second- 
ary schools.  Nevertheless,  the  general  pedagogy  that  is  so 
ably  presented  there  is  now  being  utilized  indirectly  through 
the  medium  of  a  gymuasial  Seminar  of  the  Prussian  type 
which  has  been  recently  established  in  connection  with  the 
Jena  Gymnasium.  In  this  way  intending  secondary-school 
teachers  can  avail  themselves  of  Professor  Rein's  lectures  and 
all  the  general  discussion  of  the  University  Seminar,  and  at 
the  same  time  keep  in  touch  with  gymnasial  affairs  and  give 
practice  lessons  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Gustave  Richter, 
director  of  the  Gymnasium. 

The  Seminar  in  Leipsic  is  only  remotely  connected  with 
the  university.     It  is  under  the  direction  of   Dr.  Richard 
Richter,  who  is  both  director  of  the  royal  Gym- 
nasium and  professor  in  the  university.     The 
candidates  do  their  general  work  in  the  university,  and  come 
to  the  Gymnasium  for  training  in  practical  lines.    It  has  only 
a  one-year  course,  and,  inasmuch  as  its  members  are  in  prep- 
aration for  positions  in  the  higher  schools  of  Saxony,   the 
Seminar  has  little  influence  beyond  the  kingdom. 

It  is  somewhat  different  with  the  Seminar  at  Giessen. 
From  its  beginning  in  1876  it  has  been  under  the  leadership 
of  Dr.  Hermann  Schiller,  who  is  at  once  Pro- 
fessor  of  Pedagogy  in  the  University,  director 
of  the  Gymnasium,  and  Oberschulrat  of  Hesse.  It  is  the  pio- 
neer institution  of  the  modern  type,  and  has  given  direction 


368  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

to  the  recent  development  of  the  Prussian  gymnasial  Semina- 
rian. Schiller's  Handbuch  der  praktischen  Pddagogik  and  his 
Geschichte  der  Pddagogik  indicate  the  scope  of  the  work. 
By  means  of  lectures,  discussions  and  dissertations,  the  way 
is  prepared  for  the  practical  application  of  the  principles  of 
psychology  and  ethics.  Every  problem  is  a  problem  of  sec- 
ondary education,  and  every  member  of  the  Seminar  is  in 
training  for  the  secondary  schools.  An  unusual  amount  of 
work  is  required  of  the  Seminar  members ;  but,  so  far  as  I 
can  judge  from  a  short  visit,  it  is  done  fairly  well.  It  is  evi- 
dent, however,  that  better  financial  support  would  work 
great  improvements.  But  in  theory  Schiller's  Seminar  is  far 
and  away  ahead  of  any  institution  in  Germany  designed  for 
the  training  of  teachers  for  the  secondary  schools.  It  comes 
near  being  a  model  training  school  for  secondary  teachers. 

The  honours  of  leading  the  recent  movement  in  Germany 
for  better  pedagogical  training  are  about  equally  shared  be- 
tween Dr.   Schiller  and  the  late  Dr.  Frick  of 
Halle.     The  former  was  the  pioneer ;    but  in 
1881  Dr.  Frick  reorganized  the  Seminarium  Prceceptorum  of 
the  Franckesche  Stiftungen,  and  became  at  once  a  recognised 
leader  of  pedagogical  thought  in  Prussia.     Since  his  death, 
in  1892,  the  Seminar  has  been  conducted  by  his  successor, 
Dr.  Fries,  on  the  Prussian  gymnasial  plan. 

The  Probejahr,  as  I  have  already  indicated,  has  not  been 

much  affected  by  the  introduction  of  the  Seminar  training. 

As  heretofore,  the  candidates  are  told  off  in  pairs 

Trial  Year6     ^or  service  *n  the  larger  schools.     Their  work 

is  mostly  class  instruction,  under  the  guidance 

of  older  teachers.     Besides  the  six  or  eight  hours  a  week  of 

teaching,  they  may  be  called  upon  for  a  certain  amount  of 

supervision ;   they  must  attend  all    faculty  meetings,   and 

otherwise  identify  themselves  with  the  life  of  the  school. 

For  all  this  they  receive  no  remuneration  whatever  ;  but,  on 

the  contrary,  if  their  work  is  not  acceptable,  they  may,  on 

report  of  the  director,  be  dismissed  from  the  service.     But  if 

their  record  is  satisfactory  at  the  e»d  of  the  Probejahr,  their 


THE  PROFESSIONAL   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS     369 

names  are  inscribed  on  the  list  of  teachers  eligible  to  appoint- 
ment in  the  higher  schools  of  the  province.  Their  period  of 
probation  is  finished;  they  have  only  to  wait  a  few  years 
before  beginning  their  life  work.  This  work,  once  begun 
and  attended  to  with  reasonable  diligence,  will  insure  them  a 
competency  for  the  rest  of  their  days.  It  is  a  slow  process, 
but  sure.  The  end,  however,  is  a  desirable  one  both  for  the 
teachers  and  for  the  state. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : — Fries,  Die  Vorbildung  der  Lehrer  fur  das 
Lehramt,  Vol.  II.,  Pt.  I.,  of  Baumeister's  Handbuch.  (This  comprehensive 
study  was  not  published  in  time  to  be  of  service  in  the  preparation  of  this 
chapter ;  I  specially  commend  it  to  those  who  are  interested  in  the  train- 
ing of  teachers  for  secondary  schools. — J.  E.  R.);  Loos,  Die  praktisch- 
padagogische  Vorbildung  in  Deutschland,  Zeitschrift  fur  osterr.  Gym., 
Vienna,  1893 ;  Schiller,  Die  pddagogische  Vorbildung  der  Gymnasial- 
lehrer,  address  before  the  41st  Philologenversammlung  (gives  the  Giessen 
plan) ;  Frick,  Pddagogische  und  didaktische  Abhandlungen — Das  Sem- 
inarium  prceceptorum,  Halle,  1893;  Rein,  Aus  dem  pddagogischen  Uni- 
versitdts- Seminar  zu  Jena,  Langensalza;  Zange,  Gymnasialseminare 
und  die  pddagogische  Ausbildung  der  Kandidaten  des  hoheren  Schulamtes, 
Halle,  1890  ;  Beyer,  Zur  ErricJitung  Pddagogischer  Lehrsluhle  an  unseren 
Universitdten,  Langensalza,  1895;  Windscheid,  Das  Lehrerinnenbild- 
ungs-  und  Prufungswesen,  in  Wychgram's  Handbuch  des  hoheren  Mdd- 
chenschulwesens,  Leipsic,  1897;  Schiller,  Praktische  Pudagogik ;  Schra- 
der,  Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichtslehre,  Berlin,  1893;  Encyclopedias  of 
Schmid  and  Rein.  And  see  Bibliography,  p.  455,  Nos.  Ih,  2,  4. 

NOTE  TO  SECOND  EDITION: 

Regulations  adopted  in  1898  prescribe  the  following  subjects  for  exam- 
ination: (1)  General  test — philosophy,  pedagogy  and  German  literature 
— also  for  members  of  Christian  churches,  religion ;  (2)  Special  test — 
Christian  religion,  philosophical  propaedeutic,  German,  Latin,  Greek,  He- 
brew, French,  English,  history,  geography,  pure  mathematics,  applied 
mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  including  mineralogy,  botany  and 
zoology,  and  Polish  and  Danish  (for  certain  candidates  only).  No  group- 
ing of  subjects  is  officially  made,  as  formerly,  except  that  in  certain  sub- 
jects the  following  combinations  must  be  made  :  Latin  and  Greek,  French 
and  English,  history  and  geography,  religion  and  Hebrew,  pure  mathe- 
matics and  physics,  chemistry  and  either  physics  or  botany  and  zoology. 
German  may  be  substituted  for  Latin,  French.  Hebrew,  or  history  in  the 
above  combinations.  Only  two  grades  of  certificates  are  now  recognized : 
Erste  Stufe  entitles  the  candidate  to  teach  the  subject  in  any  class; 
Zweite  Stufe  is  good  only  in  the  lower  classes  lip  to  and  including  fhfer- 
Kecunda.  See  Beier,  Die  hoheren  Schulen  in  Prensscn  und  ihre  Lehrer, 
for  recent  official  regulations. 


CHAPTEK  XIX 

APPOINTMENT,   PROMOTION   AND   EMOLUMENTS   OF 
TEACHERS 

CANDIDATES  for  teachers'  positions  in  the  higher  schools 
who  have  successfully  passed  the  state  examination  and  com- 
pleted the  prescribed  course  of  professional 
fcraining  make  formal  application  to  the  Pro- 
vincial-Schulcollegium  in  the  province  where 
they  wish  to  teach.  In  case  several  applicants  have  completed 
their  trial  year  ai,  the  same  time,  priority  is  determined  by 
the  dates  of  the  state  examination.  This  fact  is  of  great  im- 
portance, inasmuch  as  teachers  are  appointed  to  permanent 
positions  in  government  schools  in  order  of  seniority  as  de- 
termined by  the  official  list.  Each  candidate,  it  is  to  be 
noted,  is  certificated  only  in  certain  subjects  and  for  definite 
grades.  As  vacancies  occur  in  the  state  schools,  appointments 
are  necessarily  made  from  those  possessing  the  requisite 
qualifications. 

This  method  of  appointment  was  especially  emphasized  in 
the  Berlin  Conference  of  1890  as  the  only  satisfactory  mode 
of  checking  favouritism.     The  plan  has  its  ad- 
Procedure       vantages  ;  it  also  has  its  defects.     For  example, 
it  may  happen  that  well-qualified  men,  polished 
gentlemen,  will  be  sent  to  comparatively  unimportant  posi- 
tions, while  men  of  less  merit  fall  into  more  desirable  and 
more  exacting  berths.     It  is  always  possible,  however,  for  a 
Candidate  to  surrender  his  chance  to  the  man  next  in  order, 
and  still  retain  his  place  at  the  head  of  the  list.     On  the  other 
hand,  if  a  candidate  refuses  an  appointment  once  it  has  been 

370 


APPOINTMENT  AND  PROMOTION  OF  TEACHERS     371 

made,  he  may  be  set  back  six  months,  put  at  the  foot  of  the 
list  or  dismissed  altogether,  at  the  discretion  of  the  provin- 
cial school-board.  Such  an  extremity,  however,  is  usually 
avoided  by  a  little  foresight  on  the  part  of  the  Oberschulrat. 
A  candidate  holding  the  first  place  on  the  list  may  be  advised 
by  the  inspector  to  retire  in  favour  of  the  next  in  line,  when- 
ever it  seems  desirable  that  the  first  eligible  candidate  should 
not  be  appointed  to  a  particular  position.  For 

l        A  i    r>  i  •  i.-      i      a     ,  In  Royal  Schools. 

example,  A  and  B,  ranking  respectively  first 
and  second  in  the  official  list,  are  both  qualified  in  the  major 
subject  required  to  fill  a  vacancy  existing  at  some  important 
place.  The  inspector  knows  that  a  place  much  more  suited 
to  A  is  likely  to  become  vacant  in  a  few  months  ;  he  advises 
A  accordingly  to  give  way  to  B,  who  is  immediately  appointed 
to  the  inferior  position.  If  B  refuses  to  accept,  he  will  be 
set  back  far  enough  to  give  no  trouble  for  some  time  to  come. 
Indirectly,  therefore,  the  inspectors  have  considerable  power 
in  placing  men  ;  they  use  it  freely  to  advance  the  interests 
of  the  best  candidates  and  the  most  progressive  schools.  It 
is  always  the  senior  candidate's  right,  however,  to  demand 
appointment  to  the  first  position  falling  vacant  for  which  his 
credentials  qualify  him.  Once  on  the  official  list,  nothing  but 
gross  negligence  can  prevent  his  ultimate  appointment  to 
some  position. 

Teachers  in  higher  schools,  of  whatsoever  kind,  must  be 
selected  from  the  provincial  list.  Vacancies  in  state  schools 
must  be  filled  in  order  of  seniority,  as  described 

•     J         ,  .  ,     In  City  Schools. 

above ;  but  city  schools  and  others  under  special 
patronage  are  free  to  select  from  the  list  regardless  of  order.1 
The  local  board  nominates  a  candidate  for  a  vacancy,  and  asks 
the  approval  of  the  provincial  inspectors.  This  granted,  the 
appointment  is  made  in  regular  fashion.  Herein  again  the 
inspector  shows  his  power.  By  refusing  to  confirm  a  nomina- 
tion made  by  a  local  board,  and  forcing,  if  needs  be,  a  series 
of  choices,  the  government  can  determine,  indirectly  at  least, 
the  character  of  the  teaching  force  in  schools  not  immediately 
under  its  jurisdiction.  It  must  be  conceded,  however,  that 

1 "  SLx  highest  on  the  list  "—Regulation  of  April,  1898,  Beier,  p.  417. 


872  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

the  privilege  allowed  to  the  focal  boards  of  selecting  teachers 
at  will  from  the  eligible  list  tends  to  take  the  best  teachers 
away  from  the  state  schools.  The  cities  generally  pay  larger 
salaries  and  take  younger  men — all  of  which  is  a  great  induce- 
ment to  eager  candidates.  But  many  teachers  prefer  to  wait 
their  turn  for  appointment  to  a  state  school,  because  of  the 
greater  dignity  attached  to  the  government  service.  The 
civil  servant  enjoys  a  certain  rank  at  court,  and  has  the  proud 
satisfaction  of  knowing  that  no  favouritism  or  political  bias 
enters  into  his  appointment. 

All  definitely  appointed  teachers  are  required  to  take  the 
oath  of  office,  which  is  administered  by  the  directors  of  the 
state  schools  or  by  the  local  magistracy  in  behalf 
of  city  schools.  By  order  of  1848,  it  runs  as 
follows :  "  I  swear  to  God  the  Almighty  and  Omniscient 
after  I  have  been  installed  as of to  be  sub- 
missive, loyal  and  obedient  to  His  Royal  Majesty,  King  of 
Prussia,  my  most  gracious  lord,  to  fulfil  all  the  duties  of  my 
office  according  to  the  best  of  my  knowledge  and  belief,  and 
also  faithfully  to  observe  the  constitution.  So  help  me  God." 
The  ceremony  closes  with  a  formal  handshake,  whereupon  the 
person  is  installed  in  the  service  of  the  crown.  But  lest  he 
forget  his  professional  duties,  a  special  ministerial  rescript 
reminds  him  that  "  the  teacher  in  a  public  school  must 
possess  both  the  intellectual  and  moral  strength  which  en- 
ables him  to  be  an  example  in  all  respects  to  his  pupils.  He 
should  recognise  no  higher  duty  than  with  fidelity  to  his 
self-chosen  profession  to  avoid  in  instruction  and  association 
with  his  pupils  all  that  might  tend  to  disturb  the  natural  and 
sound  development  of  youth,  all  that  cannot  be  conceived 
and  rightly  judged  by  youth,  all  that  might  tend  to  displace 
right  religious  feelings  or  reverence  for  what  is  noble  and 
good." 

The  intending  teacher  in  Germany  does  not  expect  a  speedy 
appointment  to  a  governmental  post.  In  fact,  he  expects  to 
wait  years  for  it.  The  certificated  candidates  who  received 
appointments  in  the  province  of  Hesse-Nassau  in  1894  had 


APPOINTMENT  AND  PROMOTION  OF  TEACHERS  373 

waited  already  an  average  of  six  years  since  the  expiration 
of  their  respective  trial  years.  The  same  test  applied  to  other 
provinces  gives  the  following  results  :  Branden- 
burg, 8  years  ;  Hanover,  5.5  years ;  Saxony, 
3.5  years;  Silesia,  7.5  years;  Posen,  5. 4  years; 
West  Prussia,  8.1  years;  Westphalia,  4. 4  years;  Schleswick- 
Holstein,  4.2  years  ;  Rhine  Province,  3.8  years.  This  makes 
an  average  period  of  waiting  for  the  average  candidate  of  5.6 
years.1 

The  variation  in  the  several  provinces  is  due  to  the  relative 
desirability  of  positions,  the  number  of  city  schools,  condition 
of  social  life  as  determined  by  large  cities  and 

J  Causes  of  Delay. 

personal  reasons.  Candidates  are  free  to  make 
application  for  a  place  in  the  official  list  of  any  province,  but 
they  are  not  permitted  to  register  in  more  than  one.  Some 
provinces,  therefore,  have  more  eligible  candidates  than 
others  ;  some  have  been  so  unpopular  at  times  as  not  to  have 
candidates  enough  to  fill  their  vacancies.  But  the  ministry 
now  reserves  to  itself  the  right  to  permit  voluntary  transfers 
from  one  province  to  another,  and  in  case  of  necessity  arbi- 
trarily to  equalize  the  lists.  Eligible  candidates  from  other 
states  may  also  be  assigned  by  the  ministry  to  particular  prov- 
inces. A  candidate  who  leaves  his  province  without  per- 
mission, or  accepts  a  permanent  appointment  to  a  school  not 
under  royal  patronage,  or  engages  in  an  employment  not  ap- 
proved by  the  authorities,  loses  thereby  his  place  in  the 
eligible  list. 

An  unfortunate  combination  of  subjects  in  which  a  candi- 
date is  certificated  may  long  defer  promotion.  According  to 
the  list  of  certificated  candidates  in  Hesse-Nassau,  above  re- 

1  Statistics  for  the  first  half  of  the  year  1897  show  that  in  the  province 
of  Brandenburg,  in  which  the  city  of  Berlin  is  situated,  twelve  perma- 
nent appointments  were  made.  The  waiting  periods  were  respectively  11, 
10.5,  10,  9.25,  9,  8.5,  8,  8,  7.5,  7.6,  6  and  5.5  years— average,  8.33  years. 
The  ages  of  the  teachers  thus  first  appointed  to  their  life  work  were  re- 
spectively 36,  34,  42,  41,  41,  36,  35,  38,  43,  33,  36  and  31  years.— Pdda- 
gogischea  Archiv,  Vol.  XXXIX.,  p.  176. 


374  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ferred  to,  the  distribution  among  major  subjects  was  as  fol- 
lows :  Religion  and  Hebrew,  7  ;  Latin  and  Greek,  54  ;  French 
and  English,  15  ;  mathematics  and  physics,  32  ; 
^"su'b  ecu1  °f  Cnemistl7  and  natural  sciences,  2  ;  history  and 
geography,  8  ;  gymnastic  training,  9.  If  there 
were  the  same  number  of  positions  requiring  these  subjects 
in  the  schools  of  the  province,  the  candidate  in  chemistry  and 
natural  sciences  would  have  twenty-seven  chances  of  promo- 
tion to  one  for  Latin  and  Greek.  But  there  are  more  teach- 
ers wanted  for  the  classics  than  for  the  sciences.  An  examin- 
ation of  the  faculty  lists  of  three  typical  schools  shows  sixteen 
teachers  of  Latin  and  Greek  to  seven  teachers  of  chemistry 
and  natural  sciences  (or  either).  This  reduces  the  chances  of 
the  candidate  in  science  very  materially,  and  yet  the  ratio  is 
about  twelve  to  one  in  his  favour.  But  the  law  of  supply  and 
demand  will  regulate  all  these  defects  in  time.  This  happens 
to  be  a  period  of  rapid  advancement  in  science,  and  good 
teachers  are  few. 

There  is  still  another  factor  that  influences  appointments 
and  tends  to  delay  promotion.  When  vacancies  occur  from 
death  or  retirement,  the  probabilities  are  that 
superior  places  are  to  be  filled,  and  that  many 
changes  will  be  made  before  there  is  need  of 
calling  in  a  new  man.  Untried  men  are  never  appointed  to 
any  particular  position,  but  rather  to  a  position  which  is 
pretty  certain  to  be  near  the  foot  of  the  faculty  list.  You  nor 
men  often  have  to  stand  aside  and  let  experienced  teacherw 
from  other  schools  step  into  the  places  that  seemed  to  ba 
theirs.  In  fact,  the  transfer  of  teachers  from  school  to  school 
is  much  more  frequent  than  would  seem  possible  under  the 
system.  Some  positions  are  eagerly  sought,  because  of  special 
advantages  attached  thereto.  The  Friedrichs-  Werdersches 
Gymnasium  of  Berlin  and  Schulpforta,  for  example,  have 
special  foundations  for  teachers,  widows  and  orphans,  and 
valuable  stipends  for  the  education  of  teachers'  sons.  But 
despite  all  such  attractions,  a  vacancy  will  be  sifted  out  some- 
where to  which  a  young  candidate  may  be  appointed. 


It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  the  candidate  spends  the 
time  intervening  between  the  trial  year  and  his  permanent 
appointment  in  idleness.  Some  are  employed 
as  assistant  teachers  at  a  salary  of  1,500  marks  During  the 
($375)  per  year.  Others  seek  employment  as  Waitin« Period- 
private  tutors,  journalists,  book-keepers  or  what-not.  Prac- 
tically, however,  most  candidates  are  unable  to  do  anything 
but  teach  ;  they  have  had  no  training  for  anything  else,  and 
competition  is  too  severe  in  Germany  to  let  choice  positions 
go  a-begging.  Often  a  candidate  prefers  to  serve  a  number  of 
years  as  assistant  in  a  good  school,  awaiting  appointment  in 
that  place,  than  to  accept  a  permanent  position  in  an  undesir- 
able locality.  In  Hesse-Nassau,  in  1894,  of  one  hundred  and 
seventeen  certificated  candidates  awaiting  appointment,  thirty 
were  assistants  and  ten  were  employed  in  other  capacities  in 
the  public  schools.  Sixty-five  were  over  thirty  years  of  age. 
They  had  spent,  on  the  average,  fourteen  years  in  prep- 
aration— nine  in  the  Gymnasium,  three  in  the  university 
and  two  in  professional  study — and  were  destined  to  wait  full 
six  years  after  being  declared  fit  for  their  life  work. 

After  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance  and  having  been  in- 
stalled in  a  definite  position,  the  teacher  is  a  government  of- 
ficer. His  tenure  of  office  is  secure,  and  upon 
retirement  after  ten  years  of  service  he  is  en- 
titled to  a  pension.  His  salary  and  pension  are  determined, 
primarily,  by  the  position  which  he  occupies  and  length  of 
service.  While  a  teacher  must  always  confine  his  instruc- 
tion to  the  subjects  in  which  he  is  certificated,  an  effi- 
cient teacher  is  certain  of  advancement  in  rank.  Leaving 
assistants  (Hilfslehrer)  and  special  teachers  out  of  account, 
there  are  three  ranks  :  regular  teachers  (Oberhhrer),  profes- 
sors and  directors.  The  title  of  professor,  however,  is  purely 
honorary,  and  carries  with  it  no  substantial  benefits.  It  is 
one  of  the  practical  results  of  the  Conference  of  1890,  in- 
tended to  better  the  social  standing  of  higher-school  teachers. 
By  royal  order,  it  is  decreed  that  one-third  of  the  regular  staff 
of  the  higher  school  may  be  appointed  by  the  ministry  to  a 


376  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

rank  equivalent  to  that  of  university  professor  and  have  the 
title.  The  honour  is  intended  to  be  an  award  of  merit ;  but  in 
practice  it  is  the  upper — and  older — third  of  the  faculty  who 
receive  it,  regardless  of  merit. 

Special  privileges  are  granted  to  teachers  in  accordance 

with  their  rank.     All  state  officials  of  Prussia  are  carefully 

classified,  and   the   gradation   is  punctiliously 

Privileges.  ,\ 

observed  on  all  state  occasions.  The  ordinary 
higher-school  teachers  belong  to  the  fifth  class  ;  directors  and 
professors  of  twelve  years'  service  belong  to  the  fourth  class  ; 
and  occasionally  the  crown  honours  a  very  old  man  who  is  dis- 
tinguished as  a  teacher  and  director  with  the  privileges  of  the 
third  class  and  the  title  of  Gelieimer-Regierungs-Rat.  Pro- 
vincial school  inspectors  and  ministerial  councillors,  being 
administrative  officers,  are  ranked  by  themselves  in  higher 
classes. 

Great  care  is  exercised  in  the  selection  of  directors  of 
higher  schools,  not  only  for  the  professional  responsibilities 
involved,  but  also  because  through  them  the 
government  expects  to  watch  over  the  politi- 
cal development  of  future  leaders  in  the  state. 
From  the  time  Of  the  Reformation  down  to  1810,  it  was  the 
custom  for  the  city  magistrates  to  nominate  principals  of 
schools  under  their  patronage,  subject  to  the  confirmation 
of  the  local  pastor  and  the  superintendent  of  the  ecclesiastical 
district.  Humboldt  made  the  election  of  directors  of  Gym- 
nasien  dependent  upon  the  approval  of  the  crown.  In  1817 
the  provincial  consistories  were  given  the  right  to  appoint, 
or  approve  the  appointment,  of  all  higher-school  teachers, 
except  that  the  assent  of  the  ministry  was  necessary  in  case 
of  head-teachers  and  directors.  A  few  years  later  the  minis- 
try assumed  the  entire  appointive  powers,  and  in  1836  the 
appointment  of  directors  was  again  direct  from  the  crown. 
And  there  it  remains  to-day.  By  custom,  however,  the 
choice  of  director  is  almost  entirely  left  to  the  judgment  of 
the  provincial  inspector — himself  persona  grata  to  the  king 
and  ministry  who  retain  him  in  office.  The  inspector,  as  he 


APPOINTMENT  AND  PROMOTION  OF  TEACHERS     377 

moves  about  the  schools  of  his  province,  marks  those  teach- 
ers who  seem  to  have  the  quality  of  leadership.  When  a 
vacancy  occurs  in  a  state  school,  he  knows  at  once  the  man 
for  the  place.  Whenever  possible,  the  selection  is  made  from 
the  faculty  of  the  school ;  but  petty  jealousies  often  make  this 
impracticable.  In  case  of  city  schools,  the  local  board  usually 
seeks  the  advice  of  the  provincial  inspector.  But  no  city  is 
bound  to  take  the  man  who  may  be  the  choice  of  the  inspec- 
tor ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  inspector,  with  the  consent  of  the 
crown,  can  veto  any  appointment  the  city  board  may  make. 
Thus  a  dead  lock  may  occur  if  a  city  government  is  strongly 
liberal  or  progressive,  and  aims  at  getting  a  school  director  of 
the  right  political  stripe.  The  government  would  unhesitat- 
ingly refuse  to  confirm  the  appointment  of  any  man  known 
to  be  of  a  socialistic  turn  of  mind.  In  such  an  event  the  local 
board  must  proceed  to  another  election,  and  so  on  till  a  compro- 
mise candidate  is  found.  The  state  is  bound  to  win  in  the  end ; 
it  is  extremely  imprudent  to  oppose  one's  superiors  in  Prussia. 
The  successful  candidate  for  the  vacant  principalship  is 
generally  the  one  who  has  made  no  move  to  secure  it.  Elec- 
tioneering on  a  candidate's  part  would  surely 
defeat  him  ;  such  action  is  branded  as  unprofes- 
sional  in  Germany,  and  un  worthy  of  a  teacher 
and  a  gentleman.  Nothing  prevents  a  person  making  an  ap- 
plication for  a  position,  even  in  a  state  school ;  but  a  good  deal 
depends  on  how  it  is  done.  Public  advertising  or  the  exer- 
tions of  "teachers'  agencies"  would  be  of  little  use.  The 
approved  method  is  to  keep  in  close  touch  with  the  provincial 
inspector.  There  is  nothing  discreditable  in  a  young  man's 
telling  the  inspector  that  he  prefers  promotion  in  line  of 
principalship,  rather  than  as  master.  If  such  a  man  is  willing 
to  take  the  leadership  of  a  small  provincial  school,  his  chances 
of  advancement  are  good.  Promotion  to  a  better  post  may 
come,  if  one's  record  is  good  ;  but  it  will  come  slowly  The 
typical  director  of  a  higher  school  is  a  man  above  fifty  years 
of  age  ;  the  directors  of  th^  state  schools  in  Berlin  in  1894 
were  of  the  average  age  of  sixty  years. 


378  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

9 

The  installation  of  a  director  of  a  higher  school  is  an  inter- 
esting ceremony.  A  representative  of  the  government,  gen- 
erally a  provincial  school  inspector,  makes  an 
address  and  inducts  the  director  into  office. 
Besides  this,  there  is  generally  a  place  on  the 
program  for  music,  speeches  by  local  dignitaries  and  an  in- 
augural address  by  the  newly  installed  officer.  No  oath  is 
required,  as  the  director  is  already  in  the  civil  service  ;  he  is 
merely  transferred  to  a  new  field.  And,  in  general,  no  ex- 
amination of  any  kind  is  required,  although  provision  is 
made  for  a  Colloquium  pro  rectoratu,  which  is  specially  de- 
signed to  test  the  director's  familiarity  with  the  laws  and 
ordinances  governing  his  office.  These  are  so  many  and  so 
intricate  that,  as  a  provisional  inspector  once  said  to  me, 
"  the  average  teacher  can  hardly  be  expected  to  know  them." 
Hence  the  omission  of  this  test. 

It  would  far  exceed  the  limits  of  this  essay  were  I  to  attempt 
to  give  in  detail  the  duties  of  higher-school  directors,  as  de- 
fined by  the  ministerial  orders,  circular  rescripts 
an(^  provincial   regulations   which   have    been 


issued  for  the  guidance  of  these  officials.  Suf- 
fice to  say,  that  there  is  no  code  of  school  laws  in  Prussia,  and 
that  precedent  determines  everything.  The  briefest  possible 
summary  of  the  official  orders  given  to  the  directors  from 
1867  to  1873  covers  over  one  hundred  finely  printed  pages  in 
Wiese-Kiibler's  Laws  and  Orders.  Besides  being  required 
to  teach  at  least  twelve  hours  a  week,  the  director  is  charged 
with  the  entire  responsibility  of  his  school.  He  oversees 
the  work  of  all  his  teachers,  and  is  obliged  personally  to  ob- 
serve their  work  and  to  keep  a  written  record  of  his  observa- 
tions. He  must  settle  all  disputes  within  his  faculty,  and  re- 
port cases  of  negligence  to  the  provincial  school-board  ;  he 
must  be  the  leader  in  the  professional  life  of  his  school  ;  he 
must  be  in  constant  communication  with  the  parents  of  his 
pupils,  and  see  to  it  that  the  regular  notices  and  reports  are 
issued  at  the  proper  time  ;  he  must  make  exhaustive  annual 
and  semi-annual  reports  to  his  superiors,  and  be  ready  at  any 


APPOINTMENT  AND  PROMOTION  OF  TEACHERS     379 

time  to  supply  all  statistics  and  special  information  that  the 
government  may  require ;  and  once  in  three  years  he  must 
file  a  comprehensive  report  of  his  administration,  which  in- 
forms the  government  of  the  condition  of  his  school,  its 
needs  and  the  quality  of  the  work  and  character  of  each  in- 
structor. In  short,  there  is  nothing  that  a  school  principal 
can  be  conceived  as  doing  which  is  not  directly  enjoined  or 
prohibited  in  the  numerous  precedents  established  by  official 
orders.  And  I  wish  to  say  that,  so  far  as  my  observation 
goes,  the  conscientious  director  of  a  higher  school  in  Germany 
is  the  hardest  worked  man  I  have  ever  seen  in  the  profession. 
Principals  of  schools  and  colleges  in  England  and  America 
may  occasionally  be  charged  with  greater  responsibility  ;  but  I 
have  never  found  elsewhere  so  much  detail  work  and  so  much 
teaching  coupled  with  the  necessity  of  professional  growth 
and  intellectual  productivity,  nor  have  I  ever  seen  elsewhere 
so  much  energy  wasted  for  lack  of  clerical  assistance.  It  is 
painful  to  see  a  great  school-master  doing  unaided  what  a 
third-rate  stenographer  could  better  do.  But  the  day  of  type- 
writers has  not  yet  dawned  on  the  fatherland  ;  the  old  way  is 
quite  satisfactory,  if  the  new  happens  to  cost  money. 

An  extract  from  a  private  letter  from  one  of  the  foremost 
directors  in  all  Germany  tells  its  own  story  :  "  I  am  at  present 
quite  overwhelmed  with  work,  which,  to  my 
regret,  is  chiefly  administrative  and  always  tin-  instance 
congenial  to  me.  I  am  still  compelled  to  turn 
night  into  day,  in  order  to  perform  the  most  necessary  duties. 
Then,  all  my  spare  time  is  taken  up  with  class  visitation, 
criticism  of  teachers'  work  and  devising  means  of  assisting 
them  to  better  results.  It  takes  so  much  time  ;  but  I  must 
do  it,  as  I  can  find  no  other  way  of  interesting  them  in  new 
methods.  Besides,  my  notion  of  a  pedagogue  compels  me  to 
regard  this  work  as  my  highest  duty  ;  it  is  in  the  interests  of 
the  moral  education  of  my  pupils,  which  is  certainly  not  less 
important  than  their  intellectual  development.  The  next 
step  is  to  secure  the  friendly  co-operation  of  the  parents,  for 
the  sake  of  complete  harmony  between  home  and  school.  All 


380  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

this  is  desirable,  and  I  am  compelled  to  do  it.  Note,  too, 
that  I  must  also  keep  regular  office  hours  for  parents  and 
pupils ;  hold  conferences  ;  that  I  give  thirteen  hours  of  in- 
struction a  week,  for  which  papers  must  be  prepared  and  cor- . 
rected  ;  that  I  have  two  trial  teachers  entrusted  to  me,  whose 
training  I  must  supervise  with  special  care  ;  that  I  must, 
unaided,  make  up  the  numerous  government  reports  and 
conduct  all  my  correspondence.  Note  all  this,  and  you  will 
readily  see  that  more  than  one  man's  strength  is  demanded 
or  much  must  be  neglected.  But  even  this  is  not  the  end  : 
I  had  almost  forgotten  the  regular  directors'  meeting  (of  the 
city)  ;  consultation  with  the  local  board  ;  special  conferences 
(just  now  it  is  the  question  of  school  gardens) ;  the  numerous 
educational  meetings  which  one  must  attend  occasionally,  for 
the  sake  of  appearances ;  social  obligations,  which  one  can 
never  entirely  shake  off  ;  and,  finally,  family — but  there  is 
nothing  left  for  them,  poor  things  ! "  One  wonders  that 
there  is  anything  left  of  the  man.  But  the  picture  is  true 
to  life,  as  I  can  testify  from  personal  observation  of  the\ 
school.  I  need  scarcely  add  that  for  six  years  this  man  has 
been  vainly  trying  to  revise  a  little  book  of  his  which  the 
public  demands  in  a  new  edition. 

Necessity  has  invented  a  way  of  piecing  out  a  director's 

strength  and  extending  his  authority.     It  is  the  discovery  of 

the  class-master,  or  Ordinarius,  and  his  possi- 

The  Class-Master  ' r 

bilities.  The  Ordinarius  is  a  regular  teacher 
who  is  chosen  by  the  director,  with  the  consent  of  the  pro- 
vincial school-board,  to  act  as  the  director's  representative  in 
a  particular  class.  There  are,  therefore,  as  many  class- 
masters  as  there  are  classes  in  the  school.  Each  class-master 
is  selected  from  the  teachers  who  give  instruction  in  the  class 
— generally  the  one  who  teaches  the  largest  number  of  hours. 
The  class-master  is  expected  to  be  teacher,  guide  and  friend 
of  his  class.  All  other  teachers  report  to  him,  and  the  class 
record  is  his  special  care.  Pupils  must  first  seek  his  advice 
before  going  to  the  director;  he  becomes  personally  acquainted 
with  the  parents  of  his  boys ;  he  studies  the  condition  of 


APPOINTMENT  AND  PROMOTION  OF  TEACHERS     381 

their  home  life  and  their  conduct  out  of  school  ;  he  has 
charge  of  the  trial  teachers  who  may  be  assigned  to  the  class, 
and  sees  to  it  that  no  harm  comes  from  their 
teaching  ;  and  in  all  faculty  conferences  he 
acts  as  spokesman  for  his  class.  From  the  reports  of  other 
teachers  he  knows  just  what  each  boy  is  doing,  and  is  pre- 
pared to  talk  intelligently  with  teacher  or  boy,  as  the  case 
may  be.  Thus,  he  is  responsible  for  the  industry,  progress 
and  morals  of  his  charges.  But  he  is  not  allowed  to  hear 
pupils'  complaints  against  other  teachers,  nor  can  he  inter- 
fere with  the  execution  of  any  order  that  a  colleague  may 
give.  A  question  involving  the  judgment  or  goodwill  of  an- 
other teacher  must  go  to  the  director. 

It  will  be  evident  that  the  class-master  can  be  of  great  ser- 
vice to  the  director.  When  the  office  is  faithfully  filled,  as 
I  believe  it  generally  is,  not  only  is  the  director  saved  much 
anxious  care,  but  the  work  of  the  school  is  wonderfully  im- 
proved. And,  best  of  all,  the  system  provides  for  that  close 
and  intimate  contact  between  pupil  and  teacher  which  is  so 
essential  in  a  secondary  school ;  at  no  time  in  a  boy's  course 
is  it  so  necessary  to  have  the  close,  personal  and  intensely  in- 
terested guidance  of  some  one  upon  whose  experience  and 
advice  he  may  rely.  To  be  sure,  not  all  class-masters  are 
successful,  or  even  conscientious,  in  the  performance  of  their 
duties  ;  but  enough  of  them  are  to  remove  all  basis  for  that 
charge  which  is  so  often,  and  so  falsely,  made  against  German 
school-masters — namely,  that  they  have  no  personal  interest  in 
their  pupils. 

Regular  teachers  are  required  to  give  at  least  twenty-two 
hours  of  instruction  per  week,  but  professors  may  fall  under 
this  minimum  two  hours  without  losing  a  pro- 
portionate amount  of  their  salary.  Assistants 
must  teach  twenty-four  hours,  and  special 
teachers  twenty-six  hours  per  week.  Every  instructor  is 
liable  to  be  called  upon  at  any  time  for  extra  service,  in  case 
of  need,  without  remuneration.  The  teacher  is  required  to 
obey  the  orders  of  the  director  in  all  official  matters.  lie 


382  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

must  faithfully  carry  out  the  official  program,  keeping  in  mind 
the  general  administration  and  educational  purposes  of  the 
school.  He  must  see  that  the  physical  powers  of  the  pupils 
are  not  overtaxed,  and  that  all  instruction  is  made  pedagog- 
ical and  clear.  He  must  hold  all  recitations  punctually  ; 
make  all  corrections  of  pupils'  work  regularly  and  exactly  ; 
record  all  cases  of  punishment,  with  explanations,  and  report 
such  cases  to  the  class-masters  and  director.  He  can  commu- 
nicate with  higher  state  officials  only  through  the  director. 
He  cannot  marry  without  the  consent  of  the  provincial  school- 
board.  He  may  not  take  up  outside  duties,  nor  give  in- 
struction to  pupils  in  the  regular  course,  without  the  consent 
of  the  director.  He  must  notify  the  director  in  case  he  wishes 
to  make  a  journey  during  vacation  ;  or,  if  he  wishes  to  resign 
his  position,  he  must  notify  the  provincial  school-board  at 
least  three  months  in  advance.  Especially  are  teachers  re- 
quired to  hold  themselves  aloof  from  all  political  controver- 
sies, and  from  publishing  or  writing  essays  or  themes  on  po- 
litical subjects. 

The  director  is  expected  to  supervise  and  criticise  the  work 
of  his  staff.  If  a  teacher  remains  indifferent,  he  may  be  re- 
proved by  his  colleagues  in  faculty  meeting,  or 
^e  director  may  report  the  case  direct  to  the 
provincial  school-board,  which  is  authorized, 
after  special  investigation,  to  take  final  action.  The  offender 
may  be  fined,  suspended  from  office  for  a  time  or  dismissed 
from  the  service  altogether.  Naturally,  extreme  measures  are 
taken  very  seldom,  and  only  for  the  grossest  misconduct  or 
impropriety.  The  usual  means  of  whipping  a  negligent 
teacher  into  line  are  the  director's  criticisms  and  the  fear  of 
losing  caste  with  his  colleagues.  It  is  a  hard  blow  for  a 
teacher  to  be  proved  inefficient  by  his  successor  in  the  next 
higher  class.  Such  a  condition  is  sufficient  reason  for  faculty 
censure,  which  is  about  as  hard  to  bear  as  the  extreme  pen- 
alty. Indeed,  it  is  generally  felt  that  the  teacher  who  con- 
ducts himself  in  a  manner  to  merit  the  disapprobation  of  his 
fellows  would  accept  dismissal  quite  as  gracefully  as  censure 


APPOINTMENT  AND  PROMOTION  OF  TEACHERS     383 

from  the  faculty.  It  happens  very  seldom,  therefore,  that  a 
teacher  is  publicly  reprimanded — probably  all  too  seldom. 
The  esprit  de  corps  of  German  teachers  is  very  marked ;  but 
action — or  rather  inaction — is  more  influenced  by  the  univer- 
sity custom  of  letting  each  man  do  as  he  will,  than  by  the 
military  ideal  of  upholding  the  honour  of  the  profession.  The 
fact  is — and  there  is  no  denying  it — a  large  percentage  of  the 
staff  of  each  school  is  a  dead  weight  which  the  rest  must 
carry.  Whatever  be  the  theoretical  means  of  detecting  poor 
work,  and  of  prodding  the  inefficient  teacher,  in  practice  all 
depends  upon  the  personality  of  the  director.  If  he  is  a  pro- 
gressive man,  and  knows  how  to  inspire  his  teachers  with 
high  ideals,  all  goes  well ;  but  if  he  is  himself  weak,  or  too 
diplomatic  to  stir  up  bad  odours,  the  rotten  parts  will  be  dis- 
creetly covered.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  usual  state  of  affairs, 
due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  fact  that  in  each  school  some 
teachers  are  long  past  their  prime.  These  men  may  have 
been  good  teachers  twenty  years  ago ;  but  the  times  have 
changed.  New  tasks  have  been  imposed  upon  the  school,  and 
there  is  not  enough  vitality  in  reserve  to  meet  the  emergen- 
cies. In  many  cases  it  is  not  a  lack  of  goodwill,  but  absolute 
inability  to  see  things  in  their  modern  perspective. 

The  advantages  of  the  Prussian  system  are  obvious.     Its 
chief  defect  is  the  difficulty  of  getting  rid  of  incompetent 
teachers.    The  teacher's  tenure  of  office  is  based 
upon  such  grounds,  and  governed  by  such  laws,  pnJj^  system 
as  make  expulsion  from  the  service  exceedingly 
difficult.     Not  only  is  it  difficult  to  prove  charges  of  inef- 
ficiency, but  it  injures  a  school  to  make  the  trial.     The  next 
best  plan— the  one  that  is  regularly  enforced  in  the  army — 
is  to  force  the  incompetent  teacher  to  retire  and  make  way 
for  a  better.     This  step,  however,  necessitates  the  payment 
of  the  pension  to  which  every  retiring  higher-school  teacher 
is  entitled.     It  costs  money,  and  consequently  the  step  is  re- 
luctantly taken. 

The  teaching  profession  in  Germany  cannot  expect  to  rival 
the  military,  but  the  two  are  drawing  nearer  together.     The 


384  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

effort  is  being  made  to  establish  a  professional  code  of  honour, 
as  in  the  army,  in  which  the  younger  teachers  are  trained  by 
the  older  ones.  The  policy  of  having  a  gen- 
erous  sprinkling  of  reserve  officers  in  the  teach- 
ers' ranks  is  decidedly  helping  to  establish  a 
norm.  The  ideal  teacher  of  to-day  is  not  that  of  twenty  on 
thirty  years  ago.  He  is  not  the  absent-minded,  black-coated, 
seedy  individual  that  once  typified  the  scholar,  but  a  wide- 
awake man  of  the  world.  Of  course,  the  gradual  separation 
of  the  schools  from  clerical  influence  is  largely  responsible  for 
this  change ;  yet  it  is  the  military  spirit  that  has  set  the  ideal 
for  the  modern  teacher.  The  man  who  stands  before  his 
class  erect  and  stiff  as  a  statue,  buttoned  to  the  chin  and  in 
faultless  attire — this  is  the  man  who  inspires  German  pupils 
with  the  highest  respect,  even  though  his  speech  in  the  class- 
room is  as  short,  sharp  and  imperious  as  that  of  the  parade 
field.  In  referring  to  my  observations  on  this  point,  one  of 
the  most  progressive  inspectors  of  Prussia  freely  expressed 
himself  as  convinced  that  the  military  type  of  teacher  was  the 
coming  one.  He  maintained,  too,  that  the  increased  atten- 
tion to  gymnastics  and  field-sports  was  tending  to  strengthen 
the  military  spirit  among  the  pupils.  "  For  us  there  is  no 
other  way/'  he  said ;  "  we  are  and  must  remain  a  nation  of 
soldiers.  When  we  cease  to  be  that  we  are  nothing."  It  remains 
to  be  seen  whether  the  military  spirit  will  sufficiently  pene- 
trate the  profession  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  a  master  to 
shirk  his  duty  ;  whether  the  best  interests  of  all  will  be  sacri- 
ficed to  the  indolence,  indifference  or  inability  of  a  few. 

The  salaries  of  teachers  in  the  higher  schools  of  Prussia 
vary,  as  has  been  said,  according  to  rank  and  length  of  service. 
Directors  of  full  nine-year  schools  in  Berlin  re- 
ceive from  $1,500  to  $1,800  a  year,  and  $375  for 
house  rent  if  an  apartment  is  not  provided  in  the  school 
building.     The  initial  salary  of  directors  of  complete  schools 
in  cities  of  over  50,000  inhabitants  is  $1,275  ;  after  fifteen 
years  of  service  the  maximum,  $1,800,  is  reached.     The  initial 
salary  in  smaller  cities  is  $1,200.     Directors   of  six  years' 


APPOINTMENT  AND  PROMOTION  OF  TEACHERS     385 

schools  begin  in  Berlin  and  other  large  cities  with  $1,275, 

and  work  up  to  $1,500  :    :a   the  smaller  cities,  the  limits 

are   $1,125  and  $1,500.     Regular   teachers  in 

state  schools  receive  an  initial  salary  of  $675, 

wh'c'i  is  increased  $75  trieunially  until  the  maximum,  $1,275, 

is  reached,  after  twenty-four  years  of  service.     One-half  of 

all  the  teachers  in  the  complete  schools  and 

one-fourth  of  those  in  the  incomplete  schools 

may  receive  an  additional  allowance  of  $225  per 

year  for  distinguished  services.     The   salaries  of  technical 

teachers,  assistants  and  others  of  like  grade  range  from  $375 

to  $900.     To  these  amounts  should  be  added 

the  annual  allowances  for  house  rent :  directors,       Teachm. 

$150  to  $250 ;  regular  teachers,  $90  to  $225  ; 

and  others,  $40  to  $135 — according  to  the  size  of  the  city  in 

which  the  teacher  must  reside.     City  schools  and  those  under 

private  patronage  may  be  permitted  to  pay  larger  salaries 

than  the  state  allows;  but  in  no  case  can  they  pay  less.1 

The  salaries  of  directors  and  teachers  of  higher  schools  are 
very  low  in  comparison  with  the  salaries  paid  to  men  of  equal 
worth  in  American  or  British  schools.  It  will 
be  seen  that  $2,000  is  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
best  men  in  the  state  schools,  even  after  twenty 
.-•years  of  service.  A  few  city  schools,  and  some  on  special 
foundations,  do  approximate  that  amount.  And  these  men, 
be  it  understood,  are  holding  positions  equivalent  to  the 
presidency  of  a  high-grade  American  college  or  the  head- 
mastership  of  an  English  public  school.  The  discrepancy  is 
often  explained  on  the  theory  that  it  costs  correspondingly 
less  to  live  in  Germany.  That  living  expenses  are  less  in 
Germany  than  in  America  is  true,  but  it  is  not  because  foods 
are  cheaper  there  than  here.  The  fact  is,  as  everyone  knows 
who  has  tried  it,  that  it  costs  more  to  live  in  Germany  than 
in  America,  if  you  live  in  the  same  way.  Provisions  of  all 
kinds  are  more  expensive  ;  clothing  and  domestic  service 

1  The  complete  salary  schedules  of  Prussia,  Saxony,  Bavaria  and  Wiir 
temberg  are  given  in  Appendix. 


386  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

alone  are  cheaper.  The  German  family  has  learned  the  les- 
son of  economy ;  the  same  economy,  if  practised  in  Amer- 
ica, would  yield  still  better  results.  The  sole  advantage 
which  the  German  teacher  has,  as  I  see  it,  is  in  his  tenure  of 
office  and  pension.  This  may  make  good  the  difference  or 
not,  just  as  one  looks  at  it. 

It  is  no  wonder  that  with  such  meagre  income  German 
teachers  rarely  travel  beyond  the  fatherland.  Leave  of  absence 
may  be  granted,  but  the  teacher  must  bear  the 
expense  of  a  substitute.  Prussia,  however,  ex- 
pends yearly  5,000  marks  in  assisting  teachers, 
especially  of  modern  languages,  to  study  abroad.  The  city 
of  Berlin  provides  an  annual  fund  of  6,000  marks  for  the 
same  purpose,  and  a  few  other  cities  do  almost  as  much. 
Special  foundations  exist,  too,  for  the  purpose  of  assisting 
classical  teachers  to  a  period  of  travel  in  Italy  and  Greece. 
These  grants  range,  according  to  the  circumstances,  from  500 
marks  upwards.  In  case  of  illness,  no  deduction  is  made  ;  the 
director  will  divide  up  the  work  among  the  other  members  of 
his  staff.  If,  however,  there  are  no  signs  of  ultimate  recovery, 
the  teacher  is  ordered  before  an  examining  board  for  retire- 
ment. 

Teachers  of  all  grades  in  the  civil  service  retiring  after  ten 
years  of  service — or  earlier,  if  because  of  disabilities  incurred 
in  the  discharge  of  their  duties — receive  a  pen- 
sion of  £$  of  their  last  year's  salary.  For  each 
year  of  service  beyond  ten  years,  Jff  of  the  last  year's  salary  is 
added,  until,  after  thirty  years,  the  maximum  of  ff  is  reached. 
A  teacher  who  has  an  income,  from  all  official  sources,  of  $1,600 
will  receive,  therefore,  a  pension  of  $1,200  for  the  rest  of  his 
life.  More  than  that,  after  his  death  his  widow  is  entitled  to 
one-third  of  his  pension;  and  each  child  under  eighteen  years 
of  age,  to  one-fifth  as  much  as  the  mother.1 

On  the  whole,  it  must  be  conceded  that  the  German  teacher 
is  tolerably  well  provided  for.     His  income  is  small;  but  in 

1  See  Appendix  for  a  summary  of  pension  laws. 


APPOINTMENT  AND  PROMOTION  OF   TEACHERS     387 

comparison  with  members  of  other  learned  professions,  he  is 
not  far  in  the  rear.  He  can  live  as  his  neighbours  do,  enjoy 
cultivated  society,  rear  a  large  family,  send  his  sons  to  the 
university,  fit  his  daughters  to  be  as  cheerful,  industrious 
and  frugal  as  their  mother,  and  be  assured  of  a  competency 
in  his  old  age. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  : —  Wiese,  Das  hohere  Schulwesen  in  Preussen  ; 
Wiese-Kiibler,  Verordnungen  und  Gesetze  ;  Instruction  fiir  die  Directortn 
an  den  hbheren  Unterrichtsanstalten  der  Provinz  Brandenburg  (and  same 
for  Lehrer  and  Ordinarien),  Berlin,  1868;  Bestimmungen  uber  das  Mdd- 
chenschulwesen,  31  Mai,  1894,  Berlin,  18!)5  ;  Wychgram,  Handbuch  des  ho- 
heren  Madchenschulwesens,  Leipsic,  1897 ;  Encyclopedias  of  Schmid  and 
Rein;  Stdtistisches  Jahrbuch  der  hoheren  Schulen  ;  Kunze,  Kalendar  fiir 
das  hohere  Schulwesen  Preussens,  Breslau,  1894 :  Centralblatt  fiir  die  ge- 
sammte  Unterrichts-  Verwaltung  in  Preussen  (official  organ  of  the  Prus- 
sian Education  Department).  See  Bibliography,  p.  455,  Nos.  Ih,  2,  4. 


CHAPTER  XX 

TENDENCIES  OF  SCHOOL  KEFORM 

THE  German  school  system  in  its  present  form  is  the  out- 
come of  a  long  process  of  development,  in  which  there  has 
been  continual  adaptation  of  means  to  ends. 
A  complex     The  system  of  the  future  will  be  the  result  of 

Problem.  J 

an  evolution  in  what  is  now  at  hand.  The 
factors  in  this  problem  are  so  numerous,  and  their  interrela- 
tions so  complex,  that  it  is  almost  presumptuous  in  a  foreigner 
to  suggest  a  possible  solution.  Nevertheless,  there  are  certain 
tendencies  so  manifestly  important  that  they  deserve  special 
mention.  This  chapter,  therefore,  is  the  projection  of  the 
historical  introduction  to  this  study  into  the  present  and 
future. 

The  pressing  problems  in  German  educational  affairs  are 

unmistakably  those  relating  to  the  function  of  the  higher 

schools — questions  of  the  end  and  means  of 

The  Main       secondary  education,  of  state  control  and  indi- 

Qaestions.  J 

vidual  freedom.  Of  course,  there  are  many  less 
important  questions ;  and  it  is  characteristic  of  the  German 
way  of  doing  things  to  slight  nothing  because  of  its  apparent 
insignificance.  There  are  questions  of  methods  of  teaching, 
of  internal  organization  and  conduct  of  school  work,  of  hy- 
giene, of  salaries  and  pensions,  of  the  social  rank  and  stand- 
ing of  teachers,  of  the  professional  training  of  teachers — all 
these  and  many  more  are  constantly  in  the  minds  of  German 
educators,  as  the  flood  of  current  literature  clearly  demon- 
strates. At  intervals,  these  questions  come  into  prominence; 
but  with  few  exceptions  the  course  of  development  is  well 

888 


TENDENCIES  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  389 

understood,  or  waits  on  the  solution  of  more  fundamental 
problems. 

The   struggle  between  humanism   and  realism  in  higher 
education  goes  back  centuries.    It  had  passed  through  several 
stages  even  before  Sturm  and   Comenius  en- 
tered the  lists ;  since  their  day  there  has  been    H^8™"- 

'  *  Realism. 

no  cessation  of  hostilities.  The  latest  stage  of 
development  was  entered  on  in  Germany  about  forty  years 
ago,  when  Real-schools  began  to  be  fostered  by  the  state. 
Then,  for  the  first  time,  the  "gymnasial  monopoly "  was 
forced  to  reckon  with  a  real  adversary.  It  is  the  same  old 
struggle,  but  in  modern  dress.  In  this  case  both  humanism 
and  realism  have  been  touched  with  the  prevailing  civic  ideals 
of  education.  The  problem  is  to  reconcile  the  conflicting 
claims  of  humanism,  realism  and  nationalism. 

I  have  already  attempted  to  show  that  the  higher  schools 
are  expected  to  enter  readily  into  the  service  of  the  state. 
The  emperor,  in  an  order  dated  May  1,  1889, 
said:  "I  have  for  a  long  time  been  occupied 
with  the  thought  of  making  use  of  the  schools  in  their  sepa- 
rate grades  for  combating  the  spread  of  socialistic  and  com- 
munistic ideas.  The  prime  object  of  the  schools  will  ever  be 
to  lay  the  foundations  for  a  sound  comprehension  of  both  civic 
and  social  relations,  by  cherishing  reverence  for  God  and  love 
for  the  fatherland.  But  I  cannot  fail  to  recognise  that  in  a 
time  when  the  errors  and  misrepresentations  of  social  democ- 
racy are  spread  abroad  with  increased  zeal,  the  school  is  called 
upon  to  make  increased  efforts  to  advance  the  recognition 
of  the  true,  the  real  and  the  possible  in  the  world.  The 
school  must  endeavour  to  create  in  the  young  the  conviction 
that  the  teachings  of  social  democracy  contradict  not  only  the 
Divine  commands  and  Christian  morals,  but  are,  moreover, 
impracticable  and,  in  their  consequences,  destructive  alike 
to  the  individual  and  to  the  community.  The  school  must 
bring  the  new  and  the  newest  history  of  the  times  more  than 
hitherto  into  the  circle  of  the  subjects  of  instruction,  and 
show  that  the  power  of  the  state  alone  can  protect  for  the  in- 


390  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

dividual  his  family,  his  freedom  and  his  rights.  And  it 
must  bring  the  youth  to  know  how  Prussia's  kings  have  ex- 
erted themselves  to  elevate  the  condition  of  the  labourers,  in 
a  continuous  development  from  the  legal  reforms  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  and  from  the  abolition  of  serfdom  to  the  present 
day.  Moreover,  the  school  must  show  by  statistics  how  con- 
siderably and  constantly  in  this  century  the  wages  and  condi- 
tion of  the  labouring  classes  have  improved  under  this  mo- 
narchical protection." 1 

This  led  to  .definite  proposals  by  the  ministry  of  state  fo* 
carrying  out  the  emperor's  wishes.  In  August  of  the  same 
year  another  imperial  order  directed  the  calling 
serve  rtTe^state  °^  ^e  Conference  which  met  in  Berlin  in  De- 
cember, 1890.  This  order  supported  the  posi- 
tion formerly  taken  in  the  following  terms  :  "  The  duty  falls 
upon  the  higher-school  system,  in  a  more  effective  pursuit  of 
its  former  objects,  not  only  to  equip  those  social  classes  that 
are  called  to  exercise  a  critical  influence  upon  the  entire  life 
of  our  people  with  the  knowledge  necessary  to  produce  such 
results,  but  also  to  give  them,  by  means  of  an  education  based 
upon  Christianity  and  the  national  German  spirit,  a  perma- 
nent tendency  of  the  will  and  of  the  character.  Therefore, 
above  all,  those  subjects  of  instruction  which  are  calculated 
to  determine  immediately  the  sensibility  and  will  are  to  be 
employed  to  the  greatest  extent  possible.  Along  with  these 
duties,  common  to  all  the  higher  schools,  the  goals  fixed  for 
individual  classes  of  schools  are  to  be  kept  firmly  in  view.  If, 
however,  in  this,  not  merely  a  more  highly  cultured  person- 
ality, but  also  an  intellectually  composed  and  a  morally  con- 
firmed personality,  is  everywhere  striven  for  as  the  result  of 
the  instruction,  then  all  the  scientific  work  of  the  higher 
schools  will  serve  the  ends  of  true  education.  This  is  univer- 
sally recognised ;  but  different  views  prevail  as  to  the  way 
that  should  be  taken  to  reach  this  goal,  and  these  views  are 
in  part  contradictory.  Therefore,  it  has  been  recommended 

1  Report   of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  Washington,  1889-189ft 
p.  344. 


TENDENCIES  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  391 

• 

to  ascertain,  through  the  joint  deliberations  of  men  of  differ- 
ent positions  in  life,  which  of  the  numerous  proposals  for 
improving  our  school  system  are  justified,  and  how  the  same 
are  to  be  equalized  ;  especially,  however,  how  they  are  to  be 
made  available  for  school  forms  that  have  come  down  to  us 
through  history."1 

Again,  in  his  address  before  the  assembled  Conference,  he 
returned  to  the  same  theme.  "  This  order  in  council,"  he  said, 
"  would,  perhaps,  have  been  unnecessary,  if  the 
schools  had  stood  at  the  stand-point  which  they 
ought  to  occupy.  If  I  shall  become  somewhat 
sharp  in  my  subsequent  remarks,  I  will  state  here,  in  advance, 
that  these  remarks  refer  to  no  one  in  particular,  but  to  the  sys- 
tem, to  the  whole  situation  of  affairs.  If  the  schools  had  ac- 
complished what  must  be  demanded  of  them — I  speak  to  you 
as  one  who  is  not  unfamiliar  with  them,  for  I  have  attended 
the  Gymnasium  and  know  how  things  go  there — they,  of  their 
own  accord,  would  have  undertaken  the  fight  against  social 
democracy  from  the  very  beginning.  The  teaching  faculties 
of  our  schools  ought  to  have  taken  a  firm  hold  of  the  situa- 
tion, and  ought  to  have  instructed  the  growing  youth  in  such 
a  way  that  the  young  people  who  are  of  my  own  age,  about 
thirty,  would  now  furnish  me  the  material  wherewith  I  might 
accomplish  the  overthrow  of  this  movement.  But  such  has 
not  been  the  case.  .  .  .  But  just  here  lies  the  punctum 
saliens.  Why  are  so  many  of  our  young  people  led  astray 
by  crude  theories  ?  Why  is  it  that  so  many  so-called  reform- 
ers of  the  universe  ( Weltverbesserer)  make  their  appearance 
among  us,  with  their  confused  and  incoherent  notions  ? 
What  is  the  reason  why  so  much  fault  is  continually  found 
with  our  government,  and  we  are  perpetually  referred  to  for- 
eign nations  for  example  ?  Because  our  young  people  are 
ignorant  as  to  the  historical  evolution  of  the  conditions  of  our 
time,  and  as  to  the  fact  that  they  are  the  outgrowth  of  the 


1  See  Verhandlungen  iiber  Fragen  des  hOheren  Unterrichti,  Berlin,  1891 ; 
also  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education,  Washington,  1889-1890,  p.  346. 


392  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

age  of  the  French  Revolution.  .  .  .  The  question,  then, 
before  us  is,  how  can  we  best  reach  the  desired  results  with 
regard  to  classical  and  scientific  training  (Real-bildung),  and 
as  to  the  requirements  for  the  one  year's  service  in  the  army? 
The  easiest  way,  in  my  opinion,  to  get  at  these  results  is  by 
changing,  with  one  decisive  and  radical  step,  our  former 
views,  and  by  saying :  Classical  Gymnasien  for  classical  educa- 
tion, and  another  kind  of  schools  for  scientific  training  (Real- 
bildung),  but  no  Realgymnasien.  The  Realgymnasien  are 
only  half-way  measures,  which  give  but  a  partial  education, 
and  produce,  therefore,  only  incomplete  preparation  for  life." l 
The  emperor's  words  were  a  direct  challenge  to  all  parties. 
The  humanists  were  charged  with  being  philologists  merely, 
not  educators  in  the  truest  sense  of  the  term, 
deeded  ™  '  "  r^^ie  foundation  of  our  Gymnasium  must  be 
German.  It  is  our  duty  to  educate  young  men 
to  become  young  Germans,  and  not  young  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans." •  The  Real  gymnasium  was  declared  to  be  a  hybrid  in- 
stitution, which  gives  "  but  a  partial  education  and  .  .  . 
incomplete  preparation  for  life."  And,  lastly,  the  entire  sys- 
tem, Realschulen  included,  was  condemned  as  wanting  a  na- 
tional basis. 

While  the  charge  that  the  higher  schools  were  responsible 
for  the  growth  of  social  democracy  was  indignantly  repudi- 
ated by  the   conference,  the  results  of  their 
Nationalism      deliberations  appear  in  the  school  curricula  of 
1892,  in  which  the  subjects  of  religion,  German 
and  history  are  made  the  centres  of  instruction.     To  that 
extent  nationalism,  as  represented   by  the  emperor,  might 
claim  a  victory. 

The  cause  of  ultra-realism  was  decidedly  advanced,  in  that 
the  Realschulen  were  given  a  definite  place  in  the  school  sys- 
tem, and  endowed  with  some  privileges  hitherto 
confined  to  the  classical  course  of  training.     In 
consequence,  these  schools  have  had  a  remark- 
able growth  in  the  last  five  years.     In  1890  there  were  in 


1  Educational  Review,  I.,  pp.  201  ff. 


TENDENCIES  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  393 

Prussia  only  nine  Oberrealschiilen  and  twenty  Realschulen  ; 
these  numbers  had  increased  in  1896  to  twenty-four  and 
seventy-three  respectively.  In  the  meantime  the  attendance 
had  increased  from  4,177  and  6,940  to  10,288  and  19,67s.1 

The  signal  advantages  accorded  to  the  Realschulen  have 
put  the  advocates  of  a  humanistic  education  on  the  defensive. 
The  emperor's  a.dvice  to  convert  all  Realgymnasien  into  Ober- 
realschulen,  and  the  action  of  the  ministry  in  discrediting 
classical  instruction  in  classical  schools,  precipitated  a  heated 
discussion  concerning  the  true  significance  of  humanistic 
training. 

Advocates  of  the  Realgymnasium  have  always  insisted  that 
that  institution  was  designed  to  afford  a  liberal  education  on 
the  basis  of  modern  culture.  They  contend  xheprobiemof 
that  no  secondary  school  can  give  both  the  theReaigym 
ancient  point  of  view  and  the  modern  also  ;  that 
the  attempt  to  do  both  is  the  only  "  half-training"  which  is 
known  in  German  schools.  Better  cut  the  knot  at  once, 
then,  and  acknowledge  that  Greek  is  not  absolutely  essential 
to  a  well-rounded  humanistic  training.  You  can  have  a  hu- 
manistic education  founded  on  the  Greek  and  Roman  cult- 
ure, with  a  modicum  of  the  modern  added  ;  or  you  can  have 
a  humanistic  training  based  on  Latin,  French  and  English, 
with  such  understanding  of  Greek  culture  as  can  be  gained 
through  art  and  philosophy  and  literature,  without  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  Greek  language.  They  point  out  that  in  the 
ministerial  order  of  1859,  which  established  the  Redlgymna- 
sien,  it  was  expressly  stated  that  these  institutions  were  not 
intended  to  be  schools  merely  for  the  furtherance  of  realistic 
education.  "They  are  not  technical  schools  (FachscJiulen), 
but,  like  the  Gymnasten,  have  to  do  with  the  general  means 
of  education  and  fundamental  knowledge.  Be- 
tween Gymnasien  and  Realxchulen,  therefore, 
there  is  no  essential  opposition,  but  a  relation 
of  mutual  support.  They  share  the  task  of  providing 
the  basis  for  the  higher  education  necessary  for  the  learned 


Statistisches  Jahrbuch  der  Hoheren  Schulen. 


394  GERMAN  SIQHER  SCHOOLS 

professions.  This  division  has  become  necessary  through  the 
development  of  the  sciences  and  social  conditions."  This 
principle  was  again  recognised  in  1882,  when  the  Real-schools 
with  Latin  (Realschulen  I.  Ordnung]  were  given  the  gymnasial 
title. 

But  time  effects  many  changes — among  them  changes  in  the 
personnel  of  the  ministry  of  education.  Hence  in  1890  the 
proposition  to  abolish  these  modern  humanistic  institutions 
altogether.  But  the  attempt  was  a  failure  ;  these  schools  ex- 
ist, and  are  probably  stronger  to-day,  because  of  the  persecu- 
tion, than  they  were  in  1890. 

The  humanistic  party  is  divided  against  itself.     Both  fac- 
tions accord  the  Oberrealschnlen  a  legitimate   place  in  the 
school  system.     The  realists,  therefore,  are  for 
(MniOTH        the    nonce    quite   satisfied.     The  out-and-out 
classicists  claim  that  enough  is  conceded  ;  the 
Realschulen  are  pre-eminently  the  schools  for  those  who  want 
only  modern  culture.     The  more  liberal  faction  asserts  that 
there  can  be  no  understanding  of  modern  culture  without  the 
historical  setting  that  conies  from  a  study  of  the  life  and  lan- 
guage of  Home.     Greek,  too,  is  desirable  ;  but  it  should  be  an 
optional  subject. 

This  is  the  attitude  of  Professor  Paulsen  ;  and  it  accounts 
for  the  fact  that,  in  gymnasial  circles,  he  is  one  of  the  most 
cordially  hated  men  in  Germany.  He  is  at  the 
same  time,  I  may  also  add,  one  of  the  most 
popular  men  in  other  circles.  He  is  a  hard 
fighter,  and  cannot  be  terrified  into  silence.  His  creed  is  as 
follows  :  "  A  school  without  Latin  cannot  be  the  culture- 
school  (Gelehrtenschule)  of  the  present.  It  may  be  that  the 
Oberrealschule  is  the  school  of  the  future  ;  it  may  be  that,  in 
one  hundred,  or  two  hundred,  or  five  hundred  years,  a  school 
not  only  without  Greek  but  also  without  Latin  will  suffice 
in  preparation  for  the  learned  studies  of  that  period.  In  fact, 
I  have  no  doubt  that  the  significance  of  the  ancient  languages 
will  continue  to  decrease,  just  as  in  the  past  three  hundred 
years.  But  this  must  be  said  :  The  school  of  the  future  is 


TENDENCIES  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  395 

not  the  school  of  the  present.  The  knowledge  of  the  Latin 
language  is  to-day  indispensable  for  most  higher  studies. 
.  .  .  If  Latin  is  no  longer  the  universal  literary  language, 
it  is  still  the  language  without  which  a  deep  historical  educa- 
tion is  impossible.  He  who  undertakes  Latin  has  the  possi- 
bility of  stepping  out  of  the  narrow  circle  of  the  present. 
He  has  access  to  a  world  that  lies  entirely  beyond  the  inter- 
ests and  passions  of  the  day,  a  world  that  has  become  entirely 
historical.  Thus  he  can  observe  the  present  as  from  out- 
side ;  in  old  Kome  he  moves  in  a  world  which  had  its  own 
centre,  and  knew  nothing  of  the  world  that  stirs  about  Berlin 
and  Paris,  London  and  Moscow,  and  which  fights  about  pope- 
dom  and  Lutherdom,  revolution  and  reaction,  and  whatever 
other  names  are  given  to  the  antitheses  of  the  present  time. 
So  he  gains  an  objective  point  of  view  for  these  things,  to 
use  Spinoza's  expression  sub  quadam  ceternitatis  specie.  Just 
as  Rome  is  the  Eternal  City,  so  is  Latin  also  the  language 
of  eternity.  Indeed,  a  language  of  an  astonishing  range  : 
Caesar  wrote  in  it  his  reminiscences  and  Augustine  his  con- 
fessions ;  Catullus  sang  in  it  his  songs  and  the  mediaeval 
church  its  awe-inspiring  hymns ;  Lucretius  composed  in  it 
his  poem  '  On  the  Nature  of  Things'  and  Spinoza  his  ethics  ; 
and  twice  did  Rome  write  in  it  laws  for  the  world/'1 

Professor  Ziegler,  of  the  University  of  Strasburg,  is  of  the 
same  opinion.  In  a  public  address  in  1894  he  spoke  thus 
plainly  to  the  representatives  of  the  Gymna- 
sien :  "  We  do  not  at  all  deny  the  educational 
value  of  Greek.  We  do  not  for  a  moment  dis- 
pute the  splendour  and  lustre  of  the  Greek  spiritual  life,  its 
ideal  worth  and  its  great  educational  value.  But  when  we  lead 
our  youth  to  Lessing  and  Schiller  and  Goethe,  and,  instead  of 
Sophocles,  to  Shakespeare,  we  also  mean  thereby  to  open  to 
them  the  highest  spheres  of  the  spiritual  life  of  man  ;  and 
when  we  let  them  look  deeper  than  yon  do  into  the  secrets  of 
nature,  an  ideal  element  of  a  different  kind  reveals  itself,  which 
consists  in  the  recognition  of  the  subjection  of  man  to  Nat- 

1  Uber  die  gegenwdrtige  Lage  dct  hoheren  Schulwcsent,  Berlin,  1893. 


396  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ure's  Law,  and  which  can  be  made  by  ns  a  great  educational 
power.  But  we  want  to  meet  you  on  the  same  ground  in  the 
study  of  the  mother-tongue  and  of  history,  as  well  as  instruc- 
tion in  Latin  for  the  sake  of  linguistic  culture  and  for  the  re- 
cognition of  the  historical  connections  of  our  whole  civiliza- 
tion and  spiritual  life.  And  when  you  seek  to  strengthen 
your  Latin  instruction  because  it  no  longer  adequately  serves 
its  purpose,  we  stand  with  you  shoulder  to  shoulder ;  for  we 
are  Gymnasien  as  well  as  you,  i.e.,  preparatory  schools  for 
the  university." 1 

The  leaders  of  the  conservative  wing  are  Professor  Uhlig, 
of  Heidelberg,  and  Dr.  Jaeger,  of  Cologne.  They  uncom- 
promisingly opposed  all  suggestions  for  reform 
^n  *ne  Berlin  Conference,  and  on  principle 
never  fail  to  urge  the  advantages  of  a  complete 
classical  training.  It  is  not  how  many  things  a  pupil  knows, 
but  what  he  knows,  that  counts  ;  and  not  so  much  what  he 
learns  as  how  he  learns  it.  Everything  cannot  be  taught  in 
the  schools ;  a  selection  must  be  made,  and  it  is  well  to 
choose  what  is  of  lasting  worth.  "  In  every  word  of  Lathi 
a  bit  of  Culturgeschichte  is  hidden  away,  and  that  prevents 
the  instruction  from  sinking  into  triviality ;  it  makes  it 
scientific  even  for  nine-year-old  boys. 

Their  Arguments.  .  J '  . 

The  Gymnasium  must  be  preserved  in  its  in- 
tegrity. The  essence  of  the  Gymnasium  does  not  consist  in 
that  the  pupil  reads  any  particular  Greek  or  Latin  author  in 
his  fourteenth,  or  even  in  his  sixteenth  year,  and  also  not 
altogether  in  that  he  is  introduced  to  antiquity  ;  but  it  con- 
sists in  this  alone,  that  by  a  gradual  accustoming  to  exact 
knowledge,  however  it  is  grasped,  the  pupil  is  educated  to 
knowledge  in  its  highest  sense." 2 

The  same  idea  came  to  expression  over  and  over  again  in 
the  conference.  The  Realgymnasium  was  charged  with  being 

1  Notwendigkeit  und  Berechtignng  des  Realgymnasiums,  Stuttgart, 
1894. 

*  Jaeger  in  Vcrhandlungcn  uber  Fragcn  des  hoheren  Unterrichts,  Ber- 
lin, 1891. 


TENDENCIES  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  397 

a  school  with  no  "  centre ; "  with  a  cnrriculum  made  up  of 
a  little  of  everything  that  seemed  to  cater  to  popular  needs. 
"  Above  all,"  said  one  speaker,  "  it  matters  not  so  much 
what  is  taught  as  how  it  is  taught.  *  Man  lives  not,  nor 
shall  live,  by  the  bread  alone  that  the  school  crumbles  for 
him.'  He  lives  also  from  that  which  other  forces  reach  out 
to  him — the  force  of  the  family,  that  of  the  church  and  that 
of  the  entire  life  of  the  people.  These  forces  must  also  share 
in  the  school ;  must  take  hold  and  co-operate  with  it.  Not 
knowledge,  but  culture  is  the  chief  thing."  * 

It  is  evident  that  the  opponents  of  the  Realyymnasium  put 
the  emphasis  on  the  Real,  while  its  advocates  are  anxious  to 
lay  stress  on  the  latter  part  of  the  compound. 
In  other  words,  what  is  troubling  the  German 
educational  world  is  the  "  Greek  question." 
British  and  American  school-masters  know  well  what  that  is ; 
but  it  is  doubtful  if  any  of  us  can  imagine  what  it  might  have 
been  if  every  gate  to  our  leading  public  and  professional 
occupations  had  been  barred  by  six  years  of  prescribed  Greek. 
That  is  precisely  the  rub  in  Germany  to-day.  Six  years  of 
Greek  and  nine  years  of  Latin  are  required  of  every  applicant 
for  the  coveted  posts  in  professional  and  civil  service.  The 
prevailing  opinion  is  that  these  positions  should  be  occupied 
only  by  men  who  have  enjoyed  a  humanistic  training.  But 
what  is  humanistic  training  ?  and  how  should  it  be  rewarded? 

A  calm  view  of  the  situation  seems  to  me  to  present  a  two- 
fold opposition  to  the  "  gymnasial  monopoly."  One  force  is 
represented  by  those  who  would  make  Greek 
optional ;  these  support  the  Realgymnasium. 
The  other  element  will  hold  tenaciously  to 
Greek,  but  make  the  gymnasial  course  more  popular,  and 
thus  overcome  the  opposition  to  the  classical  training ;  these 
are  the  advocates  of  the  Reform- Schulen,  as  found,  for  example, 
in  Frankfort-am-Main.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  too,  that  in  all 

1  Dr.  Uhlhorn.  See  Professor  Thurber's  excellent  review  of  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Berlin  Confere....e  in  the  Report  of  the  Commisrioner  of 
Education,  Washington,  186i- -  -X). 


398  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

the  discussions  very  little  is  heard  of  the  value  of  Greek. 
The  struggle  turns  on  the  position  of  Latin.  Indeed,  it  comes 
near  being  a  contest  between  scholasticism  and  humanism. 
The  conservatives  will  hear  nothing  of  optional  Greek.  They 
will  not  concede  to  the  Realgymnasium  the  gymnasial  Latin 
course  ;  they  will  not  grant  additional  privileges  to  the  schools 
which  offer  Latin,  but  no  Greek.  They  lose  no  chance  to  take 
unfair  advantage  of  their  opponents ;  even  the  Berlin  Confer- 
ence, it  is  charged,  was  a  "packed "  convention,  and  destined 
for  its  initiation  to  oppose  any  proposition  looking  to  equal 
rights  for  all  humanistic  schools.1  In  the  eyes  of  the  liberals, 
the  representatives  of  the  Gymnasien  are  dogs  in  the  manger. 

1  "  Dr.  Hornemann,  Dr.  Albrecht  and  Dr.  Holzmiiller  were  all  well- 
known  opponents  of  the  .ffeaJ-institutions.  All  the  most  prominent  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Realgymnasien,  as,  for^example,  Steinbart,  Schwalbe, 
Schineding,  Krumme  in  Brunswick,  and  Dillman  in  Stuttgart  and  Prof. 
Preyer  in  Berlin,  were  not  summoned.  All  members  of  the  congressional 
committee  on  education  who  had  spoken  in  favour  of  the  equalization  of 
the  Realgymnasien,  like  Seyffardt.  Schmelzer  and  Arendt,  were  also 
missing.  On  the  other  hand,  the  deputies  Graf  and  Kropatschek,  who 
had  always  opposed  the  wishes  of  the  Real-school,  were  included.  There 
was  one  mathematician — Holzmiiller,  he  a  declared  opponent  of  the  Real- 
gymnasien ;  no  naturalist,  unless  we  count  the  physicians  as  such ;  no 
teacher  in  a  technical  high  school  ;  no  artist ;  no  architect ;  no  engineer ; 
no  forester ;  no  merchant ;  one  manufacturer,  and  one  mine-owner.  The 
association  of  .ffea/-schoolmen  had  good  reason  to  complain;  its  most 
violent  opponents  were  summoned,  and  its  chief  advocates  were  not. 
Much  might  be  expected,  however,  in  the  way  of  such  reforms  as  did  not 
involve  a  serious  change  in  school  organization.  Schenkendorf,  Eitner 
and  others  might  be  expected  to  advocate  warmly  the  cause  of  physical 
culture.  Frick  and  Schiller  would  take  ground  for  a  pedagogical  prepara- 
tion of  teachers.  There  was  ground  to  hope  that  some  measure  would  be 
taken  against  over-pressure  and  the  causes  of  near-sightedness.  There 
was  lamentation  that  no  one  appeared  to  plead  the  cause  of  drawing  and 
art  in  the  Gymnasium.  Some  practical  improvements  in  existing  institu- 
tions might  be  expected  from  such  a  commission,  but  no  radical  changes. 
The  friends  of  the  new  German  school,  however,  expected  little ;  and 
they  would  have  been  less  disappointed  than  they  were  but  for  the 
energetic  interference  of  the  Emperor." — Professor  Thurber,  in  Report 
of  Commissioner  of  Education,  1889-1890,  p.  349. 


TENDENCIES  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  399 

The  truest  friends  of  classical  culture,  in  my  opinion,  are 
the  liberals.  Germany  is  no  longer  a  part  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire.  Since  1870  the  German  nation  has  German  Educa- 
stood  on  a  modern  basis.  Her  civilization  is,  tkm  Must  be  ciae- 
indeed,  rooted  in  classical  culture,  and  she  feels 
her  kinship  with  the  past  more  certainly  than  can  England 
or  America.  It  must  needs  be,  therefore,  that  her  education, 
under  wise  management,  will  long  continue  to  be  of  the  clas- 
sical type.  But  the  conservatives  fail  to  recognise  that  social 
conditions  are  not  what  they  were;  that  modern  life  is  differ- 
entiated to  a  far  greater  degree  than  the  life  of  the  past,  and 
that  this  differentiation  demands  variety  in  the  training  of 
youth.  Moreover,  they  fail  to  appreciate  the  significance 
of  the  constantly  increasing  encroachments  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  mere  fact  that  the  government  has  been  partial 
to  the  classical  schools  for  seventy-five  years  does  not  neces- 
sarily guarantee  the  same  attitude  during  the  next  seventy- 
five.  The  general  will  is  long-suffering  in  Germany  ;  but 
once  let  popular  opinion  become  hostile  to  the  Gymnasien, 
the  cause  of  humanistic  education  will  be  set  back  a  century, 
if  not  utterly  ruined.  And  when  classical  education  breaks 
down  in  Germany,  classical  culture  will  vanish  from  the  earth 
— unless,  perchance,  a  better  than  Germany  arises. 

I  have  already  spoken  at  length  of  one  liberal  movement, 
the  Realgymnasium;  the  other— and  the  one  which  seems  to 
me  to  promise  better  immediate  results — is  the 
Reform-school  movement.     It  has  already  been          The 
referred  to  several  times  in  this   book  as  the   Reform-school. 
Frankfort  plan. 

The  idea  of  national  unity  which  pervaded  all  classes  of 
German  society  at  the  time  of  the  revolution  in  1848,  and 
which  later  found  expression  in  the  new  German  Empire,  has 
as  its  correlate  in  the  educational  world  the  idea  of  an  Ein- 
heitsschule.  This  "Union  School"  was  intended  to  absorb 
all  the  existing  common  and  higher  schools,  and,  by  welding 
them  together,  to  make  one  school  suitable  for  all  purposes, 
continuous  from  the  lowest  grades  to  the  university.  This 


400  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ideal  was  neralded  as  the  panacea  for  all  educational  ills  by 
zealous  pedagogues,  who  established  unions,  founded  journals 
and  made  many  speeches  in  its  support.  The  movement  was 
popular — altogether  too  popular  to  suit  German  bureaucracy. 
The  emperor  agreed  with  Bismarck  in  thinking  that  the 
"educated  proletariat"  were  already  too  numerous;  fewer 
university  graduates,  rather  than  more,  was  the  chief  desider- 
atum. The  Einheitsschule  was  snuffed  out,  therefore,  by  the 
Berlin  Conference.  It  was  too  democratic  for  Prussia.1 

The  Reform-Schnle  is  not  the  descendant  of  the  Einheits- 
schule, although  it  bears  some  relationship  to  it.  In  1865 
Director  Ostendorf,  of  Lippstadt,  began  the 
Derek.pment  agitation  for  the  earlier  introduction  of  French, 
as  a  step  toward  Latin.  The  attempt  was  first 
made  at  Altona,  in  1871,  but  complete  arrangements  were 
delayed  until  1878.  In  that  year  Dr.  Schlee  was  allowed  to 
make  the  course  in  the  first  three  years  of  the  Realschule  and 
Redlgymnasium  identical.  During  the  first  two  years  French 
was  the  only  language  taught  at  both  schools ;  in  the  fourth 
year  Latin  was  introduced  in  the  Realgymnasium^  and  Eng- 
lish in  the  third  year  in  both  schools.  In  1892  the  plan  was 
adopted  in  the  city  schools  of  Frankfort-am- Main,  and  was 
extended  to  include  a  half  of  the  Gymnasium,  two  Real- 
gymnasien,  the  Oberrealschule  and  all  the  Realschulen  of  the 
city.  The  comprehensiveness  of  the  trial  in  Frankfort  has 
given  it  first  place  in  public  opinion ;  hence  the  popular 
term,  "  Frankfort  system,"  has  replaced  the  older  and  more 
strictly  historical  term,  "  Altona  system." 

The  principle  underlying  the  Reform-Schule  is  that  of  com- 
paratively short  and  intensive  courses.  In  Frankfort,  six 
years  of  Latin  and  four  of  Greek  replace  the 
usual  irine  and  six  years'  courses  in  these  sub- 
jects. Hence  the  decision  on  which  a  boy's 
future  rests  is  postponed  from  three  to  five  years  later  than 
in  the  regular  royal  schools.  This  gives  time  for  teachers  to 

1  The  important  literature  on  the  Einheitsachule  is  given  in  the  Edu- 
cational Review,  I..  380. 


TENDENCIES  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  401 

test  his  ability,  and  a  basis  on  which  they  can  intelligently 
advise  his  parents.  It  retains  for  the  strict  classical  course 
all  those  who  are  by  nature  fitted  for  it  ;  it  gives  the  Real- 
schools  the  material  which  can  best  profit  from  realistic  in- 
struction. The  tendency  is  to  relieve  the  higher  schools  of 
all  kinds  from  the  dead  weight  which  each  must  carry  when 
pupils  are  forced  to  decide  upon  their  course  before  their 
powers  have  been  tested. 

Undoubtedly,  school  politics  has  much  to  do  with  the  intro- 
duction of  the  reformed  organization.  The  middle  class  in 
society  looks  upon  the  long  classical  training  as 


an  evil  —  a  necessary  evil,  perhaps,  but  still  some-  i!*  courses 
thing  that  should  be  swallowed  as  quickly  as 
possible.  A  diminution  of  three  years  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
courses,  therefore,  is  likely  to  meet  with  popular  favour.  But 
a  pedagogical  principle  is  also  involved  which  commends  it- 
self to  many  school-masters,  the  expediency  of  prefacing  the 
study  of  a  dead  language  with  a  good  working  knowledge  of 
a  living  tongue.  The  three  years  exclusively  devoted  to 
French  work  wonders,  as  I  have  related  elsewhere  ;  and  if 
present  indications  mean  anything,  the  Frankfort  experiment 
will  demonstrate  that  as  great  proficiency  in  Latin  can  be  at- 
tained in  six  years,  if  preceded  by  French,  as  in  nine  years 
without  it.  On  this  point  I  quote  from  a  report,  made  in 
1896  by  the  mayor  of  Kiel  to  the  city  magistrates,  recom- 
mending the  adoption  of  the  Frankfort  plan,  which  he  had 
personally  investigated  both  in  Frankfort  and  Altona.  His 
recommendation  is  significant  of  the  attitude  of  many 
thoughtful  men  outside  of  the  teaching  profession  ;  his  opin- 
ion of  the  quality  of  work  done  accords  with  the  estimate 
that  has  been  given  by  all  unprejudiced  observers.  He  says: 
"  In  Altona,  where  at  present  we  find  the  only  opportunity 
of  seeing  a  Reform-Schule  carried  through  to  the  highest 
class,  I  was  especially  interested  in  the  instruction  in  Latin. 
I  followed  it  through  classes  from  the  Untertertia  to  the 
Prima  of  the  Realgymnasium.  In  the  Untertertia,  where  Lat- 
in is  begun,  the  pupils  showed  an  unmistakable  interest 


402  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

in  the  new  language  ;  the  grammatical  questions  of  the  teach 
ers  were  answered  with  great  readiness,  and  short  sentences 

were  translated  with  ease  from  German  into 
°^itonan  h      Latin.     In  the  Obertertia  a  connected  passage 

unfamiliar  to  the  class  was  translated  into  Latin 
with  remarkable  confidence.  Latin  authors  are  taken  up  only 
in  the  Secunda.  Caesar's  Gallic  War  is  read  in  Untersecunda 
exclusively,  and  in  the  Obersecunda  simultaneously  with  Sal- 
lust  and  Ovid.  I  heard  the  pupils  of  the  Untersecunda 
translate  a  chapter  from  Caesar  at  sight,  and  it  seemed  to 
present  to  them  no  difficulties  whatever ;  the  Latin  text  was 
read  aloud  by  the  teacher  only.  In  the  Obersecunda  a  simi- 
lar extempore  translation  of  a  particularly  difficult  chapter 
from  the  same  author  was  given  with  equal  success.  In 
Prima  Livy  and  Tacitus,  of  the  historians,  are  read  ;  of  poets, 
Vergil  and  Horace.  The  director  himself  conducts  this  in- 
struction. He  had  his  pupils  read  for  us  two  chapters  from 
Livy,  XXII.  (chapter  39  after  preparation,  and  chapter  56 
extempore),  and  proved  his  skill  in  the  highly  developed  ability 
of  the  pupils  at  once  to  fully  understand  the  meaning  of  the 
Latin  construction  and  to  translate  it  into  good  German.  The 
recitation  of  an  ode  of  Horace  (II.,  10,  in  praise  of  the  aurea 
medocritas)  finally  showed  that  the  pupils  fully  enjoyed  the 
exquisite  music  of  these  lines.  The  aim  of  Latin  instruction 
has  been  attained  by  the  Primaner  of  the  Altona  Gymnasium 
at  least  as  successfully,  if  not  more  so,  than  in  any  Realgym- 
nasium  of  the  old  sort.  .  .  .  In  Frankfort-am-Main  Latin 
has  been  so  far  introduced  only  in  the  Untertertia.  The  in- 
struction had  begun  three-fourths  of  a  year  before  ;  still,  that 

short  period  was  sufficient  to  show  how  easily  the 

In  Frankfort.  ..  r     .       .  ,      ,        , ,  , 

pupils  who  have  had  a  three  years  preparatory 
course  in  French  can  overtake  the  pupils  trained  in  the  old 
way.  The  city  Gymnasium  at  Frankfort  has  the  advantage 
of  a  first-class  corps  of  teachers  and  a  highly  gifted  director, 
whose  fame  to  a  great  extent  consists  in-  his  allowing  the 
teachers  to  use  their  own  methods.  Naturally,  the  Gymna- 
sium attracts  superior  material.  Still,  I  would  attribute  a 


TENDENCIES  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  403 

great  part  of  the  successful  work  I  have  seen  there  to  re- 
formed methods.  I  witnessed  the  Latin  instruction  in  both 
parallel  classes  of  Untertertia,  one  of  which  was  taught  by 
the  director  himself.  The  readiness  with  which  the  pupils 
answered  the  rapid  questions  of  the  teachers  was  really  aston- 
ishingi  Even  when  the  director  put  his  questions  in  Latin, 
the  answers  in  short  Latin  sentences  were  promptly  given — a 
readiness  which  I  can  only  explain  by  the  pupils'  confidence 
obtained  in  the  use  of  the  related  language,  the  French." 

The  following  extracts  from  a  circular  letter  addressed  to 
the  patrons  of  the  higher  schools  in  Hanover,  advising  them 
of  the  introduction  of  the  Reform -school  curri- 
cula in  that  city,  shows  the  arguments  which 
appeal  to  parents  :  "  The  Reform- Scliule  obvi- 
ates the  necessity  of  parents'  choosing  for  their  nine-year- 
old  son  what  career  he  shall  follow.  This  important  deci- 
sion is  postponed  until  his  natural  inclinations  and  abilities 
can  be  more  readily  ascertained.  Very  often,  too,  a  change 
in  the  circumstances  of  the  parents  makes  it  desirable  that 
there  should  be  more  freedom  in  the  choice  of  education  for 
their  children.  .  .  .  French  is  the  foreign  language  first 
taught,  and  it  is  from  the  very  beginning  treated  as  a  living 
tongue.  .  .  .  Such  a  beginning  accords  with  the  peda- 
gogical requirement  that  the  subject-matter  of  instruction 
should  correspond  to  the  mental  development  of  the  pupil, 
and  that  the  easier  should  precede  the  more  difficult.  When 
Latin  is  begun  in  Untertertia,  the  pupil  is  mentally  ready  for 
it.  ...  Since  by  the  new  program  of  instruction  the 
Latin  essay  is  abolished,  the  scope  of  Greek  prose  composi- 
tion limited  and  the  interpretation  of  the  literature  is  made 
the  chief  object  in  classical  instruction,  it  follows  that  .  .  . 
there  can  be  no  great  difference  between  the  gymnasial  pupils 
and  those  from  the  new  schools  as  shown  in  the  final  exam- 
ination. For  in  the  development  of  mental  power  the  new 
school  will  not  have  less  means,  nor  will  it  be  behind  the 
other  schools  in  directing  the  mind  toward  the  ideal.  .  .  . 
Through  the  prominence  given  to  the  study  of  French,  and 


404  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

because  of  the  increase  in  the  number  of  hours  given  to  Ger- 
man, the  Reform-Schule  becomes  an  institution  resting  on 
a  modern  basis,  and  meets  the  needs  of  the  times  for  an  edu- 
cation more  independent  of  the  ancient  languages.  '  The 
spirit  of  the  school  must  be  nourished  by  the  life  surrounding 
us,  with  whose  changing  tides  the  principles  of  education 
vary  ;  but  for  the  success  of  all  instruction  faith  in  the  utility 
and  necessity  of  the  knowledge  acquired  is  of  the  greatest 
significance/  The  new  school  believes  in  connecting  the 
present  with  the  historic  past."1 

It  is  easy  to  detect  in  this  announcement  the  mingling  of 
politics,  expediency  and  pedagogy.  But  what  the  people 
really  want  they  will  some  time  get,  in  Germany 
as  elsewnere-  It  matters  not  that  the  old  party 
predict  the  failure  of  the  new  school  on  a  priori 
grounds ;  the  trial  is  being  made  with  the  consent  of  the 
government.  In  one  form  or  another,  it  is  being  tried  in 
Altona,  Frankfort,  Giistrow,  Magdeburg,  Essen,  Iserlohn, 
Hildesheim,  Harburg,  Osnabriick,  Lippstadt,  Bremen,  Bres- 
lau,  Hanover,  Schoneburg,  Charlottenburg,  in  the  French 
Gymnasium  of  Berlin  and  in  the  Realgymnasium  of  Carls- 
ruhe.  If  the  experiment  is  a  failure,  it  will  be.  because  the 
task  is  an  impossible  one.  The  first  real  test  will  come  in 
1901,  when  the  first  graduates  from  the  Frankfort  schools  will 
have  a  chance  to  demonstrate  their  knowledge  of  Greek  and 
Latin  side  by  side  with  those  who  complete  the  regular  course. 
It  is  dangerous  to  venture  a  prediction  as  to  the  final  out- 
come of  the  present  struggle  ;  but  to  a  person  with  a  demo- 
cratic turn  of  mind,  one  of  two  possible  solu- 

The  Outlook.  .  r 

tions  seems  inevitable :  either  Greek  will  be 
made  optional,  or  the  gymnasial  monopoly  will  be  broken 
down.  If  additional  privileges  are  given  to  the  Real-schools, 
Greek  may  be  preserved  in  its  integrity  for  many  years  to 
come  ;  if  six  years  of  Greek  must  continue  to  bar  the  way  to 


1  Jahresbericht  des  stadtischen  Leibniz-Realgymnasium  zu  Hannover^ 
1895. 


TENDENCIES  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  405 

professional  life,  then  Greek  will  eventually  become  what  it 
was  before  1810 — a  dead  weight  in  the  curriculum.  An 
American  or  an  Englishman,  with  his  national  predilection 
for  freedom,  finds  it  almost  inconceivable  that  the  Frankfort 
plan  should  fail ;  it  is  essentially  that  which  we  ourselves  are 
rapidly  coming  to  believe  in.  The  first  three  years,  in  which 
the  course  is  common  to  all,  are  our  "  grammar-school " 
grades ;  the  upper  six  classes  differentiate  along  the  "  clas- 
sical/' the  " Latin-scientific"  and  the  "scientific"  lines. 
But  the  German  mind  is  not  democratic  ;  it  is  monarchical, 
and  accepts  class  distinctions.  The  old  gymnasial  course  is 
the  aristocratic  course,  and  the  privileged  classes  are  deter- 
mined to  keep  it  so.  The  Gymnasium — or,  rather,  its  sup- 
porters— is  largely  at  fault  for  the  growth  of  social  democ- 
racy ;  but  not,  as  the  emperor  thought,  because  it  is  doing  so 
much,  but  because  of  what  it  is  not  doing.  It  will  not  grant 
that  freedom  of  choice,  variety  in  education  and  equal  op- 
portunity for  all,  which  modern  life  demands.  I  have  more 
faith  in  modern  ideals — even  in  Germany — than  I  have  in 
German  bureaucracy.  The  bane  of  the  German  schools  is 
the  system  of  privileges.  When  that  is  abolished,  humanism 
and  classical  education  of  the  right  sort  will  flourish  as  never 
before. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  :  —  Verhandlungen  iiber  Fragen  des  hoheren 
Unterrichts,  Berlin,  1891 ;  Paulsen,  Geschichte  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts 
(new  edition,  last  chapter) — Das  Realgymnasiurn  und  die  humanistische 
Bildung,  Berlin,  1889;  Uber  die  gegenwdrtige  Lage  des  hoheren  Schul- 
wesens  in  Preussen,  Berlin,  1893;  Ziegler,  Die  Fragen  der  Schulreform, 
Stuttgart;  Notwendigkeit  und  Berechtigung  des  Realgymnasiiims,  Stutt- 
gart, 1894;  Bahnsch,  Der  Streit  urn  den  griechischen  Sprachunterricht, 
Dantzic,  1893;  Ohlert,  Die  deutsche  hohere  Schule,  Hanover,  1896;  Wer- 
nicke,  Kultur  und  Schule,  Osterwieck-Harz,  1896:  Munch,  Neue  pada- 
gogische  Beifrage,  Berlin.  1893 ;  Frick,  Die  Einheit  der  Schule — Mog- 
lichkeit  der  hoheren  Einheifsschulen  in  Pdd.  und  didak.  Abhandlung- 
en,  Halle,  1893;  Rein,  Am  Ende  der  Schulreform  t  Langensalza,  1893 
(gives  bibliography  down  to  1893);  Das  humanistische  Gymnasium; 
Zeitschnft  fur  das  O ymnasialwesen  ;  Central-Organ  fur  die  Interessen 
des  Realschulwesens.  See  Bibliography,  p.  455. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

MERITS  AND  DEFECTS  OF  GERMAN   SECONDARY 
EDUCATION 

THE  two  dominant  forces  in  the  later  development  of  the 
German  school  system  have  proceeded  from  the  State  and  the 
University.     The  one  has  made  the  system  ; 
the  other,    the  school.     Whatever  merits  or 
defects  are  discernible,  therefore,  in   German 
secondary  education,  aside  from  those  due  to  local  influences, 
which  might  arise  anywhere  and  under  almost  any  circum- 
stances, can  be  traced  to  one  or  both  of  these  sources.     In 
their  tendencies  these  forces  are  radically  different ;  it  is  an 
opposition  of  the  centripetal  and  the  centrif- 
ugal.     The  state  is   authoritative,  autocratic, 
conservative ;  the  university  is  free,  liberal  and  democratic. 
The  university  embodies  the  highest  ideals  of  the  spiritual 
life  and  culture  of  the   German  people  ;  the 

8.  The  University.  ,  . 

state  represents  their  genius  for  self-control, 
organization  and  government.  It  is  at  once  the  strength  r.nd 
the  weakness  of  the  school  system  that  it  is  the  resultant  of 
several  forces. 

In  ascribing  to  the  state  so  large  a  share  of  honor  in  the 
development  of  secondary  education,  I  do  not  mean  to  dis- 
credit the  influence  of  the  Church.     Until  the 
Vpower*1"  present  century  the  church  was  practically  in 
supreme   control.      But  since  the  Napoleonic 
Wars,  the  state  has  superseded  the  church  in  the  management 
of  school  affairs.     The  spiritual  leadership  of  the  church  is 
perhaps  as  strongly  marked  now  as  ever,  but  it  is  maintained 

406 


GERMAN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  407 

indirectly  through  the  good  offices  of  the  state  and  university. 
The  university  provides  for  the  theological  training  of  intend- 
ing teachers  ;  the  state  prescribes  the  course  of  religious  in- 
struction in  the  schools. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  without  the  fostering  care  of 
the  state  the  present  efficiency  of  secondary  education  could 
hardly  have  been  attained.  The  state  com- 
pels parents  to  send  their  children  to  school, 
provides  ample  means  for  their  instruction, 
cares  for  their  physical  well-being,  directs  their  course  of 
training  and  sets  standards  for  promotion  and  graduation  ; 
it  has  perfected  an  organization  which  permits  a  high  degree 
of  central  control,  and  yet  allows  considerable  freedom  in  the 
local  direction  of  school  affairs  ;  it  insists  on  high  scholar- 
ship, thorough  professional  training  and  pedagogical  skill 
from  all  its  teachers  ;  it  recognises  a  teaching  profession,  and 
agrees  to  support  it  even  unto  death.  All  this  has  been 
achieved  by  the  German  state  in  less  than  a  century.  It  is 
an  achievement  of  which  any  people  might  well  be  proud. 

The  compulsory  school  laws  of  Germany  are  most  salutary 
in  their  effects.  They  are  severe,  but  they  work  no  hard- 
ships. It  has  come  to  be  so  much  a  matter  of 
course  for  children  to  enter  school  at  six  and 
attend  every  day  regularly  until  they  are  four- 
teen, that  to  the  average  child  it  seems  as  inevitable  as  his 
birthdays.  This  assures  to  every  child  who  is  physically  and 
mentally  able  to  receive  it  full  eight  years  of  schooling. 
'Luther  proclaimed  it  the  right  and  duty  of  the  state  to 
compel  parents  to  send  their  children  regularly  to  school ; 
Weimar  enacted  the  first  compulsory  education  law  in  1619  ; 
Gotha  followed  in  1642 ;  Brunswick  in  1647 ;  Wurtemberg 
in  1649  ;  and  finally,  in  the  reign  of  Frederick  the  Great, 
Prussia  introduced  the  plan  which  has  since  become  univer- 
sal in  Germany.  The  responsibility  is  placed  where  it  be- 
longs— on  the  parent.  Complete  census  lists  are  kept  by 
the  local  police  ;  and  twice  a  year,  before  the  opening  of  each 
term,  the  school  authorities  are  given  the  names  of  all  chil- 


408  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

dren  who  should  enter  school.  Those  who  are  not  enrolled 
in  the  higher  schools,  and  who  have  not  received  permission 
to  undertake  private  study,  are  required  to  show  cause  for 
not  attending  the  common  schoc  Delinquents  who  do  not 
satisfactorily  excuse  their  shortcomings  are  reported  to  th 
police  or  truant  officers,  whose  duty  it  is  to  make  investiga- 
tions and  institute  thr  necessary  legal  proceedings.  In  the 
higher  schools  the  proolem  is  much  simpler  than  it  is  in  the 
common  schools,  simple  as  it  is  anywhere.  The  necessity  of 
earning  the  privileges  connected  with  promotion  in  the 
higher  schools  effectually  keeps  all  laggards  in  line  ;  the 
assistance  of  the  law  is  rarely  necessary. 

The  care  of  the  state  is  most  beneficent  in  the  regulations 
concerning  hygienic  conditions  of  school  work.  No  school 
building  can  be  constructed,  whether  by  royal 
Precautions  or  municipal  authority  or  by  private  or  corpo- 
rate bodies,  which  does  not  conform  to  officially 
accepted  standards  of  sanitary  science.  In  the  selection  of 
school  sites  ;  in  the  arrangements  for  heating,  lighting,  ven- 
tilation and  plumbing  of  school-houses  ;  in  the  precautions 
taken  for  the  prevention  of  contagious  and  infectious  diseases, 
the  government  has  taken  modern  science  into  its  service. 
If  the  construction,  equipment  and  management  of  German 
schools  are  not  the  best  in  the  world,  it  is  not  the  fault  of 
the  system.  The  health  of  the  children  in  school  is  every- 
where looked  upon  as  a  matter  of  grave  importance,  which  is 
greatly  complicated  by  the  natural  inclinations  of  the  Ger- 
man boy  to  lead  a  sedentary  life.  The  German  boy  seems  to 
have  an  aversion  for  outdoor  games  ;  it  is  partly  the  fault  of 
the  pressure  he  works  under  in  the  schools,  partly  because  he 
is  a  German.  Whatever  else  may  be  done  or  left  undone,  the 
state  insists  on  its  children  having  sound  bodies,  as  the  funda- 
mental condition  of  developing  sound  minds.  The  emperor 
told  the  Berlin  Conference  that  he  was  "  looking  for  soldiers  ; 
.  .  .  for  a  robust  generation  who  can  also  serve  the  fa- 
therland as  intellectual  leaders  and  public  officials. 
I  consider  it  very  urgent  that  the  question  of  hygiene  be  taken 


GERMAN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  409 

up  in  the  training  schools  for  teachers,  and  that  with  it  be 
joined  the  requirement  that  every  teacher  who  is  healthy 
must  be  able  to  go  through  the  gymnastic  exercises,  and 
must  do  it  every  day." 

A  uniform  course  of  study  for  all  schools  of  a  particular 
grade,  and  a  common  standard  for  promotion  and  graduation, 
can  be  made  most  serviceable  in  a  national 

,  .  .  mi  ,  Uniform  Curricula. 

scheme  of  education.  There  is,  however,  one 
important  proviso  :  The  regulations  must  be  wisely  made  and 
still  more  wisely  administered.  The  German  states  have  not 
always  acted  thus  wisely,  but  no  one  can  deny  that  much 
good  has  resulted  from  uniformity.  Under  the  old  regime 
there  were  some  grand  schools,  some  great  school- masters, 
some  excellent  scholars ;  but  the  average  level  was  deplorably 
low.  For  every  really  good  school  a  score  of  wretchedly  poor 
ones  could  be  cited ;  and  with  each  student  who  entered  the 
university  well  prepared,  fifty  others  were  admitted  who  had 
no  business  there.  The  present  plan  insures  a  high  standard 
for  ull :  it  protects  the  university  from  being  deluged  with 
immature  students ;  it  guards  the  pupil  against  incompetent 
leadership  and  partisan  interference. 

The  organization  of  the  higher-school  system,  especially  in 
Prussia,  is  worthy  of  general  imitation.  It  provides  for  a 
central  bureau,  local  school-boards  and  pro-  Or  anizatlon  of 
vincial  Schulcollegien  intermediate  between  the  the  school 
two.  The  provincial  inspectors  of  schools 
supervise  and  unify  the  educational  interests  of  their  respec- 
tive districts  ;  the  central  authority  is  extended  immediately 
over  the  provincial  boards,  and  through  them  indirectly  over 
all  schools  in  the  kingdom.  The  provincial  inspectors,  or- 
ganized as  they  are  in  semi-independent  bureaus,  have  prac- 
tically entire  control  of  all  ordinary  school  affairs  within 
their  respective  territories;  and  thus  they  can  do  much  tow- 
ard granting  local  option.  On  the  other  hand,  matters  in 
dispute  can  always  be  appealed  to  the  ministry,  or  even  to  the 
crown  in  the  last  resort.  Eacli  school  is  given  considerable 
freedom  in  working  out  its  own  policy,  and  each  teacher  has 


410  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

a  chance  to  stamp  his  own  individuality  on  all  his  work. 
Courses  of  study  and  the  regulations  for  school  management 
are  seldom  minutely  prescribed  ;  they  are  transmitted  in  out- 
line, with  a  statement  of  the  minimum  standards,  leaving  to 
individual  initiative  entire  freedom  in  practical  application. 
The  many  defeats  suffered  by  the  government  in  attempting 
to  codify  the  school  laws  are  popular  recognitions  of  local 
rights.  It  is  greatly  to  the  credit  of  the  Prussian  school- 
masters that,  while  granting  to  the  state  general  directive  and 
supervisory  powers,  they  have  tenaciously  adhered  to  their 
individual  and  professional  rights  in  the  exercise  of  these 
duties.  No  ministry  has,  thus  far,  violated  these  rights  with 
impunity.  I  have  stated  elsewhere  my  reasons  for  thinking 
that  much  credit  is  due  to  the  provincial  school-boards  for 
this  good  fortune.  The  partial  isolation  of  the  boards,  their 
personal  contact  with  the  schools  on  the  one  hand,  and  their 
dependence  on  the  ministry  on  the  other  hand,  tend  to  make 
them  peace-makers.  In  theory,  if  not  always  in  practice, 
their  mission  is  blessed. 

The  greatest  service  that  the  German  states  have  done  for 
the  cause  of  education  is  unquestionably  the  creation  of  a 

creation  of  teaching  profession.  That  first  step  taken  by 
Teaching  Humboldt  in  1810,  which  provided  for  the  ex- 
Profession,  amination  and  certification  of  teachers,  was  the 
inauguration  of  a  policy  to  which  Prussia  has  converted  the 
civilized  world.  And  as  Prussia  was  the  first  to  take  her 
teachers  into  the  service  of  the  state,  so  she  has  maintained 
her  leadership  in  making  the  profession  worthy  of  public 
honour  and  preferment.  No  other  country  has  done  so  much 
to  dignify  teaching,  and  to  attract  to  it  the  best  talent ;  none 
has  so  persistently  and  intelligently  pursued  the  policy  of 
making  the  teacher's  position  worthy  of  the  man  ;  nowhere 
else  can  such  teachers  be  found.  Prussia  has  not  only  created 
a  teaching  profession,  but  she  has  trained  up  a  body  of  men 
to  occupy  it  who  are  without  rivals  the  world  over.  This  is 
not  mere  flattery.  It  is  a  calm  conviction  growing  out  of 
a  long  personal  acquaintance  with  the  men  of  whom  I  speak, 


GERMAN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  411 

and  a  somewhat  intimate  knowledge  of  conditions  in  other 
European  countries.  The  Prussian  teacher  has  his  faults, 
and  I  have  taken  occasion  elsewhere  to  expose  them ;  but 
when  these  are  set  off  against  his  virtues,  it  seems  almost 
trivial  to  criticise.  The  Prussian  teacher,  generically  speak- 
ing, is  a  man  of  noble  character,  high  ideals,  generous  im- 
pulses, broad  and  accurate  scholarship  and  technical  skill ; 
he  is  a  gentleman,  patriot  and  educator. 

The  making  of  teachers  is  the  joint  work  of  state  and  uni- 
versity. The  state  has  made  the  teaching  profession  attrac- 
tive by  protecting  it  at  all  points,  and  supporting 
it  most  generously  ;  the  university  has  trained 
the  teacher,  given  him  his  ideals  and  sent  him 
forth  thoroughly  equipped  for  his  life's  work.  The  character 
of  his  equipment  may  well  be  shown  by  a  comparison.  Pub- 
lic opinion  in  America  is  coming,  somewhat  tardily  it  must 
be  confessed,  to  demand  a  college  training  of  its  high-school 
teachers.  In  Prussia  the  teacher  in  a  higher  school  has  a 
training  equivalent  to  the  American  college  course,  plus  two 
years  of  post-graduate  study,  plus  other  two  years  of  profes- 
sional training  and  trial  teaching.  Those  who  believe  in  the 
all-sufficiency  of  erudition,  as  well  as  those  who  believe  in  the 
necessity  of  professional  training,  must  grant  the  superiority 
of  the  German  teacher  in  point  of  preparation.  And  even 
those  very  respectable  people  who  profess  to  believe  that 
teachers,  like  poets,  are  born,  not  made,  must  confess  that 
Germany  has,  at  least,  a  fair  chance  for  distinction  if  the 
laws  of  heredity  operate  elsewhere  than  in  their  own  families. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  Germany  is  in  Europe,  and 
that  Europe  stands  armed  for  war.     "  The  first  and  para- 
mount duty  of  our  European  States  is  to  guard 
against  aggression  from  without ;  and  this  duty,      Mmtarism. 
which  is  forced  upon  them  by  the  enmity  and 
rivalry  of  their  neighbours,  frequently  overshadows  the  higher 
aims    of   civilization   and  culture." l     This    is  a   condition 

1  Professor  Ziegler,  of  t,h°  University  of  Straaburg,  in  Fornm}  XXV., 
4,  p.  457. 


412  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

which  has  to  be  reckoned  with  in  estimating  the  merits  and 
defects  of  the  German  school  system.  War  demands  men ; 
they  should  be  both  intelligent  and  loyal.  The  schools  are  in- 
stitutions supported  by  the  state  in  the  interests  of  the  state. 
What  more  likely  than  that  the  government  should  seek  to 
convert  the  schools  into  training  camps  for  the  army  ? 

It  should  also  be  remembered   that   the   government  is 

monarchical ;  the  crown  is  established  by  divine  right — so,  at 

least,  runs  a  recent  dictum  from  the  throne. 

AteAnttan.     What  more  likely  than  that  patriotism  should 

be  officially  interpreted  as  loyalty  to  the  crown 

and  established  institutions  ? 

The  chief  defects  in  the  German  school  system  may  be 
traced  to  these  sources.  For  upward  of  a  century  the  man- 
agement of  the  schools  has  steadily  been  be- 
coming  more  bureaucratic.  The  demands  of 
militarism  have  begotten  the  privilege  of  one- 
year  volunteer  army  service  ;  the  Absclilussprilfung  is  the 
latest  encroachment  on  the  domain  of  public  secondary  edu- 
cation for  military  purposes.  Indeed,  the  whole  system  of 
privileges,  which  I  have  characterized  as  the  bane  of  German 
secondary  schools,  is  an  evidence  of  bureaucratic  control. 
Year  by  year  new  regulations  are  made  which  tighten  the 
grip  of  the  central  authority,  and  leave  correspondingly  less 
freedom  for  local  option.  The  trend  is  toward  officialism  and 
formalism.  It  weighs  on  the  teachers  in  their  class-rooms,  in 
so  far  as  they  are  required  to  observe  ends  which  are  foreign 
to  true  pedagogical  ideals  ;  it  distracts  the  pupil's  attention 
from  his  study  for  its  own  sake,  and  centres  it  on  rewards  to 
be  attained  out  of  school }  it  lowers  the  standards  of  scholar- 
ship, by  forcing  schools  to  carry  too  heavy  a  load  of  super- 
annuated teachers  and  unambitious  scholars.  In  a  word,  the 
tendency  is  to  place  altogether  too  little  reliance  on  individ- 
ual liberty  and  personal  ambition. 

The  German  university  is  the  nursery  of  German  idealism 
and  individual  liberty.  From  the  days  of  Luther  until  the 
present  time  it  has  been  the  mother  of  revolutions.  The 


GERMAN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  413 

Reformation  centred  about  Wittenberg,  and  Halle  was  founded 
two  centuries  ago  on  the  principle  of  Lernfreiheit.  Freedom 
of  research,  freedom  in  teaching,  is  the  corner- 
stone of  university  education  in  German.  And  yet 
the  universities  are  state  institutions  and  stand 
under  royal  patronage.  It  is  a  curious  and  instructive  fact 
that  such  a  democratic  institution  as  the  German  university, 
pledged  as  it  is  to  absolute  freedom  and  independence  in  all  its 
work,  can  exist  in  a  German  state.  They  are  essentially  in  op- 
position to  each  other  at  every  point.  Time  and 
again  this  opposition  has  resulted  in  open  hos- 
tilities,  and  many  learned  professors  have  found 
it  prudent  to  accept  voluntary  exile.  Twice  within  five  years 
the  attempt  has  been  made  to  enact  imperial  laws  restraining 
the  freedom  of  speech  in  university  circles.  In  the  session 
of  1894-1895  the  government  introduced  a  bill  in  the  Reich- 
stag which  provided  a  penalty  of  imprisonment  for  not  longer 
than  two  years  or  a  fine  of  not  more  than  six  hundred  marks, 
in  case  of  derogatory  expressions  publicly  directed  against 
religion,  monarchy,  marriage,  family  or  property.1  The  aim 
of  the  government  was  to  combat  the  rising  social  democracy, 
and  in  order  to  do  that  the  law  had  to  be  all-embracing. 
Freiherr  von  Stumm,  one  of  the  stanchest  supporters  of  the 
government,  expressly  stated  that  the  intention  was  to  put 
down  by  "  the  iron  hand  "  all  opposition  to  authority  wher- 
ever found.  "  Though  I  have  said  some  hard  things  against 
the  employer  of  labour,  yet  I  am  willing  to  acknowledge  a 
shadow  of  excuse  for  him,  viz.,  the  coquet-  8truggle  Between 
ting  of  certain  learned  circles  with  social  state  and  uni- 
democracy — or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  with 
revolution,  as  was  the  case  shortly  before  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. Gentlemen,  right  here  in  Berlin  has  been  developed  a 
complete  university  socialism.  Every  professor,  especially  in 
political  economy,  who  does  not  fall  in  with  socialistic  views 

1  "  ...  welcher  in  einer  der  offentlichen  Frieden  gefahrdenden 
Weise  die  Religion,  die  Monarchic,  die  Ehe,  die  Familie,  oder  das  Eigen- 
thum  durch  beschimpfende  Aeusserungen  offentlich  angreift." 


414  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

is  boycotted,  as  was  the  case  in  France  ;  he  is  persecuted, 
pronounced  unscientific  and  is  never  advanced.  Under  such 
influences  our  future  officials  are  being  trained  !  Things 
have  come  to  such  a  pass  that  the  attempt  is  being  made  to 
bring  the  social  democratic  students  into  closer  association 
with  the  others.  ...  A  certain  part  of  the  Evangelical 
Church  is  directly  aiding  the  democrats.  The  civil  service  is 
becoming  tainted.  It  is  high  time  that  something  be  done. 
This  bill  is  the  first  step  toward  a  cure.  Its  great  advantage 
is  that  it  reaches  not  only  the  law-breakers,  but  those  who 
directly  or  indirectly  incite  to  crime.  There  can  be  no  ex- 
ceptions ;  there  can  be  no  law  of  exceptions." 

Another  speaker,  a  representative  of  the  powerful  Catholic 
"  Centre,"  which  is  stronger  since  the  election  of  1898  than 
ever,  disclosed  the  attitude  of  the  clerical  party  toward  the 
freedom  of  the  university.  "This  protection  of  the  German 
professor  is,  in  my  opinion,  exceedingly  imprudent  and  wrong. 
Imprudent — for  how  can  we  prevent  the  people  from  saying 
and  doing  precisely  what  these  professors  are  saying  in  their 
lecture-rooms,  repeating  in  popular  forms  and  writing  in 
their  books  ?  It  is  sheer  nonsense  to  permit  in  the  upper 
strata  what  is  forbidden  in  the  lower.  And  more — it  is 
wrong.  The  great  danger  comes  not  from  below,  but  from, 
above."  1 

The  astonishment  produced  by  this  debate  among  progres- 
sive university  men  can  well  be  imagined.     It  had  an  inquisi- 
tional  sound   that  harmonized   ill  with  nine- 
teaching11      teenth  century  ideals.    So  great  indignation  was 
aroused,  and  so  fierce  opposition,  that  the  gov- 
ernment abandoned  the  bill.     The  principle,  however,  that 
was  involved  has  not  been  abandoned.     Very  recently  another 
attempt  has  been  made  to  stifle  free  speech  in  the  universities 
of  Prussia ;  and  it  has  partially  succeeded,  in  that  men  of 
known  progressive  views  have  been  put  aside  for  those  who 
will  yield  to  authority.     But  no  one  really  believes  that  the 

1  See  my  paper  on  The  University  Crisis  in  Germany,  Educational 
fieview,  April,  18D5, 


GERMAN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  415 

universities  will  give  up  their  independence.  When  the 
university  falls,  the  throne  will  go  with  it.  The  one  ex- 
presses the  traditional  love  for  personal  liberty  ;  the  other 
embodies  the  national  sense  of  law,  order  and  authority. 
These  two  irreconcilable  facts  are  characteristic  of  the  Ger- 
man mind. 

In  one  important  respect  the  universities,  contradicting 
themselves,  join  hands  with  the  bureaucracy  in  perpetuating 
class  distinctions.  Theoretically,  it  is  the  pride 
of  the  German  university  that  its  doors  are 
open  to  all,  high  or  low,  rich  or  poor,  democrat 
or  royalist ;  practically,  however,  the  universities  are  to  blame 
for  the  present  chaotic  condition  of  secondary  education. 
The  "  gymnasial  monopoly  "  has  been  fostered  in  season  and 
out  of  season  by  the  great  majority  of  university  men.  Even 
the  medical  faculties,  supposedly  composed  of  scientific  men, 
and  imbued  with  the  modern  spirit,  have  repeatedly  rejected 
all  overtures  from  the  Realgymnasien,  It  is  Fosters 
impossible  to  give  a  satisfactory  excuse  for  such  Gymnasial 
action  on  the  part  of  an  institution  which  pro- 
fessedly stands  for  equality  and  freedom,  and  which  prides 
itself  on  recognising  no  distinctions  but  those  of  worth. 
Lernfreiheit  is  the  necessary  corollary  of  freedom  in  teaching. 
A  university  bureaucracy  that  attempts  to  deprive  students 
of  the  benefits  of  higher  study  for  which  they  are  fully  pre- 
pared (as  is  granted  by  all  who  are  best  qualified  to  judge  in 
the  matter  of  admitting  graduates  of  tlie  Realgymnasium  to 
the  study  of  medicine)  deserves  itself  to  be  subjected  to  some 
higher  power. 

The  truth  is,  that  at  bottom  this  question,  like  a  good 
many  others  that  interrogate  educationists,  is  one  of  expe- 
diency. It  involves  class  distinctions.  The  Gymnasium  is 
the  aristocratic  school,  and  he  who  would  be  counted  among 
the  elect  must  tread  its  narrow  path.  The  physician  who 
has  completed  the  gymnasial  course  is  socially  correct,  and 
that  covers  a  multitude  of  sins. 

The   boasted  freedom  of  the  universities  is  again  contra- 


416  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

dieted  in  their  attitude  toward  the  education  of  women.  No 
one  expects  the  state  to  be  liberal,  but  liberality  is  looked 
Opposes  ^or  *n  ^he  highest  educational  centres  of  the 
Admission  country.  But  with  what  results  ?  Determined, 
of  Women.  aimOst  fanatical  opposition  to  the  extension 
of  university  privileges  to  women.  I  do  not  refer  now  to  the 
general  policy  in  girls'  education,  for  in  the  main  I  am  in 
hearty  accord  with  it.  Ninety  per  cent.,  or  more,  of  German 
women  are  better  off  with  the  German  training  than  they 
would  be  with  the  results  of  such  a  system  as  is  in  vogue  in 
England  and  America.  But  for  those  women  who  desire  to 
secure  a  broader  education  than  is  afforded  by  the  girls' 
schools,  and  who  can  easily  enough  take  up  university  work 
and  profit  from  it,  there  can  be  no  valid  reason  for  keeping 
them  out.  It  makes  one  lose  faith  in  the  ideals  of  university 
enlightenment.  But  that  would  be  judging  a  German  institu- 
tion from  an  American  stand-point.  It  is  difficult  for  us  to 
realize  the  strength  of  tradition  in  the  German  universities. 
Indeed,  if  it  were  not  for  this  very  potent  force,  the  radical 
tendencies  in  university  life  would  long  ago  have  been  their 
destruction.  But  whatever  the  reason,  it  remains  a  fact  that, 
while  women  have  gained  access  to  university  study,  the  doors 
are  being  opened  very  slowly  and  with  unusual  circumspec- 
tion. In  effect,  the  universities  have  joined  with  the  bureau- 
cracy in  upholding  the  gymnasial  monopoly,  not  only  against 
the  advocates  of  a  modern  humanistic  training,  but  against 
the  advocates  of  classical  training  as  well,  if  it  happens  to  have 
been  taken  by  a  woman. 

The  precedent  has  been  established  of  admitting  graduates 
of  girls'  Gymnasien  to  university  study.  Prussia  and  Baden 
grant  them  the  privilege  of  taking  the  regular 
Maturitdtsprufung.  In  1896  six  girls  from 
one  school  took  the  final  examination  set  for 
the  boys  of  a  Berlin  Gymnasium,  and  received  high  rank. 
Four  or  five  other  schools  are  graduating  classes  of  six  or 
eight.  As  yet  the  movement  is  in  its  infancy  ;  the  time  will 
come  when  another  Schulfrage,  infinitely  more  troublesome 


GERMAN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  417 

than  any  of  its  predecessors,  will  confront  German  education- 
ists and  demand  a  hearing. 

The  general  policy  of  Germany  in  respect  to  woman's  edu- 
cation is,  in  my  opinion,  eminently  satisfactory.  The  masses 
of  women  receive  a  far  better  training  than  the  Q^^  Poll 
American  plan  would  give  them  under  similar  in  woman's 
conditions.  Life  is  hard,  but  it  is  not  the  fault  E^1*1011- 
of  the  schools.  A  university,  or  even  a  high  school,  training 
for  every  woman  would  not  lessen  the  ills  of  militarism  ;  no 
amount  of  higher  education  would  nullify  the  aggression  of 
foreign  powers.  "  Let  us  not  forget,"  says  an  ardent  advo- 
cate of  the  higher  education  of  women,  "  that  the  most  press- 
ing necessity  is  not  found  in  universities  for  women,  nor  in 
the  participation  of  women  in  the  scientific  labour  of  the 
times,  nor  in  the  opening  of  higher  professions  for  women, 
but  in  the  care  and  extensive  education  of  the  millions  of 
girls — indeed,  for  the  education  of  the  mothers  of  the  coming 
generation.  The  graceful  structures  of  a  higher  education 
and  the  capstone  of  the  edifice  will  remain  insecure  until 
they  can  rest  upon  the  broad  and  secure  foundation  of  a  gen- 
eral education  of  the  people.  A  state  which  neglects  this 
and  promotes  higher  education  exclusively,  works  for  show 
and  neglects  the  general  weal  of  the  people,  while  it  may  sat- 
isfy the  desires  and  claims  of  a  noisy  minority.  Let  us  not 
forget  that  more  important  than  the  results  of  intellectual 
education,  which  are  easily  recognised  and  estimated,  are  the 
ethical  effects  of  education  which  are  taken  into  life  and 
manifest  themselves  as  determination  of  the  will — a  quality 
which  is  not  easily  estimated,  because  not  visible  to  the  eye." 1 

The  government  seconds  this  view  by  publishing  the  ad- 
dress in  the  official  organ  of  the  education  department.  The 
poverty  of  the  state  is  urged  as  the  sole  excuse  for  not  grant- 
ing financial  aid  to  girls'  schools.  "  As  yet  the  lecture-rooms 


1  Dr.  Waetzoldt,  provincial  inspector  of  schools,  in  Centralblatt  for 
1895,  p.  741.  The  entire  address  is  translated  in  the  Report  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Education,  1894-1895. 


418  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

of  our  universities  are  open  only  to  very  few  women  ;  as  yet 
the  professions  which  do  not  agree  with  the  constitutions  of 
women,  and  for  which  the  state  demands  an  academic  prep- 
aration, are  still  closed  to  them,  while  in  other 
civilized  states  the  women  have  succeeded  in 

Considerations. 

securing  admission.  Is  this  fact  explained 
simply  by  an  unjust  valuation  of  woman's  work,  by  the  un- 
dervaluation of  woman's  capacity,  by  the  imperiousness  of 
man  and  his  anxiety  lest  woman's  competition  will  interfere 
with  his  success  ?  Let  me  say,  first,  that  the  state  with  us 
is  not  only  a  police  institution  to  protect  life  and  property, 
but  its  object  is  the  promotion  and  equalization  of  all  inter- 
ests and  culture.  It  is  obliged  to  ask,  with  every  newly  aris- 
ing claim,  whether  and  how  far  it  meets  recognised  needs.  It 
is  a  sound  and  safe  policy  of  the  public-school  authorities 
not  to  interfere  with  things  that  are  only  beginning  and  de- 
veloping, but  to  give  time  and  space  for  healthy  growth  ; 
not  to  feed  and  nurse  young  forms  artificially,  but  to  wait 
patiently  and  see  whether  they  have  a  vigorous  life  and  find 
good  soil  among  the  people.  To  remodel  anything  ancient 
that  has  long  stood  the  test,  in  order  to  introduce  something 
new  that  has  not  yet  proved  its  value,  is  always  doubtful. 
Now,  with  us,  as  it  is  well  understood,  the  condition  for  aca- 
demic or  university  study  is  the  graduation  diploma,  which 
is  granted  alone  by  classical  high  schools,  called  Gymnasien, 
for  young  ladies.  Shall  the  state  establish  them  ?  Prussia 
is  not  wealthy  enough  for  that,  and  should  we  really  lead  our 
girls  upon  an  educational  path  which  is  exclusively  designed 
and  planned  for  boys  intending  to  devote  themselves  to  the 
higher  professions  and  offices  of  the  state  ?  Shall  we  for  the 
girls  fix  a  course  of  study  with  the  authority  of  the  state,  a 
course  which  many  and  many  of  us  think  badly  needs  reform  ? 
When,  as  in  Berlin,  Leipsic  and  Carlsruhe,  private  Gymnasien 
for  girls  were  established  in  order  to  give  them  an  education 
such  as  the  boys'  schools  offer,  the  state  authorities  certainly 
did  not  interfere  or  prohibit  them.  The  first  Prussian  female 
graduate  has  passed  her  examination  well.  That  whish  is 


GERMAN  SECOND  ART  EDUCATION  419 

wanting  in  the  realm  of  higher  education  of  women  here  in 
Germany  is  not  so  much  favours  from  the  state  as  from  great 
philanthropists,  such  as  Rockefeller  and  Holloway,  and  wealthy 
corporations,  such  as  the  Brewers'  Guild  in  London,  who 
gave  large  donations  for  the  higher  education  of  women. 
Such  means  flow  very  scantily  in  Germany,  as  the  interest 
for  our  aspirations  is  not  very  extended  as  yet  among  the 
people.  More  pressing  needs  claim  the  strength  and  means 
of  the  state."1 

Such  excuses,  however,  have  little  influence  on  the  minds 
of  the  women  of  Germany  who  demand  equal  rights  for  their 
sex.  They  insist  that  not  only  should  the  uni- 
versities be  opened  to  women  who  are  prepared 
to  enter,  but  also  that  they  should  be  admitted 
to  the  professions  of  teaching  and  medicine.  Forty-five  per 
cent,  of  the  women  of  the  upper  classes  have  no  chance  to 
marry,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  men  who  are  their 
equals  hesitate  to  incur  the  expense.  They  will  not  be  de- 
pendent ;  they  must  have  equal  rights  with  men.  They  ask 
no  favours  from  the  state,  except  the  opportunity  to  demon- 
strate their  ability  to  undertake  university  study  and  profes- 
sional employment. 

Such  arguments  are  convincing,  and  are  bound  in  time  to 
win  their  way.  At  present,  however,  the  government  is  en- 
gaged in  checking  the  growth  of  Gymnasien 
for  girls.  In  April,  1898,  a  petition  from  Bres- 
lau  for  permission  to  establish  such  a  school 
was  curtly  refused  by  the  Prussian  ministry.  When  the 
government  was  interpellated  in  the  Diet  by  the  member 
from  Breslau,  the  minister  of  public  instruction  gave,  as  his 
chief  reason  for  denying  the  petition,  the  answer  that  the 
proper  function  of  women  was  to  be  intelligent  helpmates  to 
men,  that  equal  rights  involved  the  sharing  of  burdens  as 
well  as  privileges,  and  that  until  women  were  ready  to  enter 
the  army  and  serve  in  the  Reserve  and  Landwehr  the  govern- 

1  Ccntralblatt,  1895,  p.  469-470. 


420  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ment  could  not  consistently  advocate  unrestricted  compe- 
tition of  the  sexes.  Later  in  the  summer,  if  press  accounts 
are  reliable,  the  national  association  of  physicians  and  sur- 
geons, in  a  meeting  at  Wiesbaden,  resolved  that  with  their 
permission  no  woman  should  study  medicine.  The  reasons 
alleged  for  this  action  were  that  woman  is  by  nature  unfit  for 
scientific  work  ;  her  mental  powers  are  acquisitive  rather  than 
inventive  ;  memory  and  imagination,  rather  than  observation 
and  reason,  are  the  faculties  on  which  she  naturally  relies. 
In  short,  they  are  in  accord  with  the  emperor's  dictum  that 
woman's  province  is  Kiiche,  Kinder  und  Kirche — cooking, 
children  and  church. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  "  woman  question  "  will  soon  super- 
sede the  "  Greek  question."    There  would  be  no  serious  con- 
sequences from  the  discussion  of  either  were  it 
Results  of  class   not  that  class  and  sex  prejudices  are  involved. 

Distinctions.  ^  i       J 

As  it  is,  neither  problem  can  be  satisfactorily 
solved  until  society  is  reorganized  on  a  basis  of  equality  of  op- 
portunity and  freedom  of  choice  for  all.  The  gravest  defect 
in  the  German  school  system  is  the  organization  which  fosters 
distinctions  of  class  and  sex.  The  common  schools  are  for 
the  common  people ;  the  Real-schools  are  for  the  middle 
classes ;  the  classical  schools  are  for  the  aristocracy ;  and  in 
secondary  education  the  sexes  are  kept  apart.  The  lines  of 
cleavage  are  distinctly  marked,  and  in  practice  generally  ob- 
served. Were  conditions  otherwise,  there  would  be  no  quib- 
bling over  an  Einheitsscliule.  If  class  prejudice  did  not 
exist,  one  high  school  could  easily  perform  all  the  functions 
of  secondary  education  by  the  simple  arrangement  of  elective 
subjects.  But  class  distinctions  do  obtain  in  German  society, 
and  are  not  likely  soon  to  be  obliterated.  Hence  differentiation 
in  school  organization  is  inevitable.  It  may  be  theoretically 
deplorable,  but  it  is  a  practical  necessity  in  German  society. 

No  such  axiom  as  that  the  school  exists  for  the  pupil  is  re- 
cognised in  German  educational  philosophy.  The  German 
school  exists  primarily  for  the  state.  The  pupil  is  a  citizen  in 
training.  That  he  should  be  an  obedient,  loyal,  submissive 


GERMAN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  421 

subject  is  a  self-evident  truth.  Respect  for  authority  is  the 
one  essential  prerequisite  to  German  citizenship.  In  the 
selection  of  a  school  and  the  course  of  study, 

.  i  •  -i  ,1  •  •  ,  T.I        Individualism  vs. 

in  seeking  admission  to  the  university  and  the 


vocations  of  civil  life,  the  individual  has  little 
freedom  of  choice.  The  rigorous  discipline  of  the  schools, 
which  brooks  no  opposition  and  tolerates  no  parental  inter- 
ference ;  the  methods  of  instruction,  which  leave  nothing 
to  chance  and  individual  initiative  ;  the  system  of  privileges, 
which  dominates  teachers  and  pupils  alike  —  all  tend  to  the 
development  of  character  which  feels  no  restriction  of  per- 
sonal liberty  in  the  constant  surveillance  of  the  police  and 
the  rule  of  a  military  despotism.  The  social  institutions,  the 
school  system  and  the  methods  of  instruction  in  Germany 
are  calculated  to  beget  dependence  on  authority,  rather  than 
independence  and  freedom  of  action.  Individualism  in  edu- 
cation yields  to  paternalism  in  government.  German  society 
is  founded  on  the  principle  that  the  greatest  good  of  each  is 
included  in  the  greatest  good  of  all,  rather  than  on  the  prin- 
ciple that  the  greatest  good  of  all  is  subserved  by  the  highest 
individual  development  of  each. 

It  is  to  the  credit  of  the  German  school  system  that  it  is 
thoroughly  German  ;  that  it  promotes  German  culture  and 
German  civilization  ;  that  it  strives  to  realize  , 

German  Schools 

German  ideals  in  the  social,  industrial  and  for  German 
political  life  of  the  German  people.  The  for-  People> 
eigner  may  not  admire  German  ideals,  he  may  even  despise 
German  culture  and  German  civilization  ;  but  if  he  is  an  ob- 
servant school-master,  he  cannot  fail  to  admire  the  practical 
workings  of  the  German  schools.  The  sole  test  that  can  rea- 
sonably be  applied  is  adaptation  of  means  to  ends  ;  and, 
judged  by  this  standard,  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  the 
German  schools  are  master-pieces  of  intelligent  design.  To 
criticise  them  for  not  serving  other  ends  is  like  criticising  a 
delicately  adjusted  watch  for  not  recording  changes  in  tem- 
perature. So  long  as  schools  remain  social  institutions  de- 
signed to  realize  in  the  young  the  ideals  of  the  social  whole, 


422  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

so  long  must  they  be  regarded  entirely  apart  from  national 
and  racial  prejudices.  It  follows  that,  just  in  proportion  as 
German  schools  are  German  are  they  un-American,  and  in- 
capable of  satisfying  American  needs.  It  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected, therefore,  that  the  German  system  or  German  meth- 
ods can  be  directly  applicable  to  American  schools.  Only  in 
so  far  as  German  education  is  concerned  with 
^ne  development  of  man  as  man,  apart  from  his 
relations  to  any  particular  society  or  special 
end,  can  it  be  immediately  serviceable.  To  be  sure,  much 
can  be  learned  from  a  comparative  study  of  national  school 
systems ;  but  whatever  information  is  gained  from  foreign 
sources  must  be  transformed  and  readjusted  to  home  condi- 
tions. What  is  eminently  fitting  in  one  place  may  be  ill 
adapted  to  another  environment.  Each  nation  must  work  out 
its  own  educational  salvation  in  fear  and  trembling.  It  is  a 
work  that  should  be  free  from  servile  imitation,  but  ever  ready 
to  profit  from  the  experience  of  others.  The  experience  of 
Germany  can  teach  us  much,  if  we  will  but  learn  to  consider 
it  aright.  Indeed,  the  future  of  American  civilization  and 
the  rich  blessings  of  republican  institutions  will  be  assured 
if  we  can  interest  the  best  talent  of  the  country  in  education, 
and  evolve  a  school  system  which  shall  be  as  nicely  adjusted 
to  our  national  requirements  as  the  German  system  is  to  Ger- 
man needs. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

THE   PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL   REFORM 
1898-1905 

THE  decade  following  the  adoption  of  the  new  Prussian 
curriculum  in  1892  marks  the  culmination  of  the  leading 
movements  that  characterize  the  preceding  fifty 
or  one  hundred  years  of  the  history  of  German 
higher  schools,  and  with  the  turn  of  the  century 
has  come  a  new  stage  in  the  development  of  secondary  edu- 
cation. Problems  that  have  agitated  the  educational  world 
for  years  have  been  solved  or  set  aside,  others,  although  not 
new,  have  come  to  the  front.  Realistic  education — i.  e.,  the 
modern  and  scientific  as  distinguished  from  the  classical — 
has  received  the  recognition  for  which  it  has  fought  for  fifty 
years.  The  Oberredlschule  and  the  Realgymnasium  are  recog- 
nized as  having  equal  cultural  value  with  the  Gymnasium. 
Their  graduates  have  had  practically  all  fields  opened  to  them 
except  that  of  theology  in  the  case  of  the  Realgymnasium, 
and  theology  and  medicine  in  the  case  of  the  Oberrealschule. 
The  so-called  "  gymnasial  monopoly  "  has  been  broken ;  the 
question  of  privileges,  which  the  Germans  themselves  have 
recognized  as  a  disturbing  factor  in  true  educational  progress, 
has  been  solved,  if  not  completely,  at  least  in  its  most  im- 
portant aspects;  the  Abschlusspriifung  has  been  abolished1, 
and  finally,  schools  with  modern  "  reform  "  curricula  have 
received  not  only  recognition  but  official  encouragement. 

1  The  privilege  of  one-year  volunteer  service  is  now  granted  to  all  who 
complete  successfully  a  six-year  course  in  any  approved  higher  school. 

423 


424  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

Thus  a  better  opportunity  and  a  larger  freedom  are  allowed 
for  the  solution  of  the  more  strictly  educational  problems  of 
method  and  of  curricula,  which  have  recently  come  into 
prominence.  But  this  does  not  mean  that  essentially  new 
problems  have  arisen,  for  in  the  twentieth  as  in  earlier  cen- 
turies will  be  found  in  one  form  or  another  the  perennial 
strife  between  humanism  and  realism,  between  classical  and 
modern  education.  The  abrogation  of  the  exclusive  privi- 
leges of  the  Gymnasium  marked  the  transition 

A  New  Stage  m        6  » 

the  Develop-      from  what  may  be  called  an  external  stage  in 
ment  of  the       fa js  conflict  to  the  internal  or  pedagogical  stage 

Higher  Schools.  ,  . 

of  unrestricted  and,  it  is  hoped,  more  friendly 
competition  between  the  classical  and  the  modern  schools, 
between  conservative  and  "  reform  "  methods. 

A  brief  review  of  the  steps  by  which  this  far-reaching  re- 
form was  accomplished  will  throw  further  light  on  its  mean- 
ing. It  should  be  remembered  that  the  gym- 
nasial  monoply  was  of  comparatively  recent 
origin,  dating  only  from  1834,  and  that  it  was 
for  a  long  time  no  more  a  matter  of  preference  than  of  neces- 
sity— there  were  no  other  institutions  that  could  prepare  for 
the  university.  Since  1858,  the  time  when  the  cities,  which 
have  been  the  chief  promoters  of  the  Realscliulen,  first  peti- 
tioned for  a  recognition  of  these  schools,  the  movement  has 
been  gaining  momentum  and  a  .change  was  bound  to  come. 
That  it  came  so  soon  and  was  so  sweeping  was  due  in  large 
measure,  I  believe,  to  the  energetic  intervention  of  the 
Emperor. 

The  Conference  of  1890,  it  will  be  recalled,  although  recog- 
nizing the  Oberrealschule  and  granting  to  it  the  same  limited 
conference       privileges  that  the  Realgymnasium  enjoyed,  not 
of  1890  on        only  refused  to  recognize  the  equality  of  the 
Privileges.       three  types  of  schools,  but  even  went  so  far  as 
to  recommend  the  abolition  of  the  Realgymnasium.      But 
this  only  served  to  spur  the  friends  of  the  real  schools  to  re- 
new their  demands  for  privileges  with  ever-increasing  insist- 
ence.    Along  with  this  went  the  agitation  for  the  so-called 


THE  PROGRESS  OP  SOffOOL  REFORM  425 

gemeinsame  lateinlose  Unterbau — an  arrangement  that  makes 
the  first  three  years  of  all  three  higher  schools  identical 
chiefly  by  substituting  French  for  Latin  during  these  years. 
The  lead  in  this  combined  movement  was  taken  by  such  or- 
ganizations as  the  Realschulmannerverein,  the 
Verein  fur  Schulreform  and  the  Verein  far 
Fbrderung  des  lateinlosen  hoheren  Schulwesens, 
which  with  their  meetings,  official  organs  and  other  publica- 
tions carried  on  an  effective  campaign.  Their  opponents,  the 
gymnasial  party,  were  no  less  active.  Even  before  the  close 
of  the  Conference  of  1890,  fearing  that  the  radical  views  there 
expressed  boded  danger  for  the  Gymnasium,  they  had  organ- 
ized the  Gymnasialverein  which,  with  its  organ  Das  human- 
istische  Gymnasium,  has  ever  since  been  a  staunch  defender 
of  the  old  Gymnasium  and  of  classical  education. 

A  misadjustment  between  the  curriculum  of  1892  which 
had  reduced  the  time  allotted  to  Latin  by  fifteen  hours,  and 
the  "leaving  examinations"  which  still  required 
a  translation  into  Latin,  aroused  much  com-     Revival  of  *he 

Reaigymnasmm. 

plaint  from  classical  teachers  and  led  in  1895  to 
an  increase  of  three  hours  for  Latin  in  the  Gymnasium,  but 
nt  the  same  time  to  an  increase  of  four  hours  in  the  Real- 
gymnasium.  This  latter  action  was  significant  of  a  change 
in  the  government's  attitude  toward  this  school,  for  since  1890 
it  had  been  a  question  whether  it  was  to  retain  even  the  right 
to  life.  Up  to  1897  thirteen  Realgymnasien  had  been  trans- 
formed into  other  schools,  but  now  within  the  two  years  fol- 
lowing eight  new  ones  were  established.  Thus  the  Realgym- 
nasium,  characterized  by  the  Emperor  in  1890  as  a  hybrid 
and  a  half-way  measure  and  condemned  to  death  by  the  Con- 
ference, seemed  destined  to  obtain  a  new  lease  of  life  and 
growth.  Naturally  the  hopes  of  its  supporters  revived  and 
the  possibility  of  its  eventual  recognition  along  with  the  more 
popular  and  rapidly  growing  Oberrealschule  as  equal  with  the 
old  Gymnasium  became  more  certain. 

On  the  other  hand,  by  the  year  1900  there  had  come  a 
marked  change  in  the  attitude  of  the  gymnasial  party  toward 


426  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

the  question  of  privileges,  a  willingness  to  grant  that  in  some 

Gymnasia!  Par-    sense  all  the  three  types  of  schools  should  be 

ty'e  change  of     considered  equal.     Whatever  may  have  been 

the  cause  of  this  change,  it  aided  as  much  as 

any  other  influence  in  bringing  about  the  subsequent  reform. 
Finally  the  government  decided  to  call  another  conference 

to  meet  in  June,  1900,  to  consider  questions  relating  to  the 
reform  of  the  higher  schools.  Hereupon  each 
Party  drew  up  its  declaration  of  principles  and 
attempted  to  show  its  strength  by  obtaining 

signatures  thereto.  A  joint  meeting  in  Berlin  of  the  friends 
of  the  real  schools  declared  for  (1)  equal  privi- 
leges  f°r  a^  three  types  of  higher  schools  and 
(2)  a  common  course  without  Latin  for  the 

first  three  years  of  all  higher  schools.  Just  before  the  con- 
vening of  the  June  conference  a  Brunswick 
meeting  of  the  Gymnasialverein  adopted  the 
following  notable  declaration : 

1.  "The  Oymnasialverein  declares  against  the  universal 
adoption  of  the  so-called  '  reform '  Gymnasium  and  against 
the  introduction  of  the  common  fundamental  course  for  the 
nine-class  higher  schools ;  it  wishes  rather  that  the  Gymna- 
sium retain  its  distinctive  organization  from  top  to  bottom 
and  especially  that  the  time  allotment  and  course  in  Greek 
remain  unchanged  and  obligatory." 

2.  "The  Gymnasium  has  not  the  right  but  the  duty  to 
furnish  the  universal  preparation  for  university  study  and  is 
organized  with  reference  to  this  end.     Should  this  task  be 
assigned  also  to  the  Oberrealschule  and  the  Realgymnasium 
with  their  present  organization,  no  objection  will  be  raised  on 
the  part  of  the  Gymnasiumverein  to  the  granting  of  the  ap- 
propriate privileges.    With  this,  however,  there  is  no  change 
in  the  conviction  of  this  society  as  to  the  peculiar  mission  of 
the  Gymnasium  and  of  Greek  instruction  in  its  present  form 
with  reference  to  national  education." l 

1  Translated  from  Pcidagogiaches  Archiv,  Vol.  42  (1900),  p.  403. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  427 

Both  of  these  declarations  were  widely  circulated  and  each 
received  something  like  twenty  thousand  signatures.  Some 
have  claimed  that  just  as  the  gymnasial  party 
in  1890  united  with  the  real  school  party  and 
conceded  limited  recognition  to  the  Oberreal- 
sclmle  merely  in  self-defense  and  as  a  means  of  overthrowing 
its  rival  the  Realgymnasium,  so  again  in  1900  it  was  forced  to 
recognize  the  equality  of  the  different  schools  not  so  much  out 
of  love  for  them  as  from  the  desire  to  preserve  the  Gymna- 
sium with  its  old  curriculum  intact  and  to  be  able  to  insist 
more  strongly  against  the  Reformgymnasium  with  its  com- 
mon fundamental  course  without  Latin.  Be  that  as  it  may, 
this  concession  on  the  part  of  the  conservative  party  was  a 
most  politic  and  timely  move. 

When  the  conference  assembled,  the  question  of  privileges 
which  had  been  avoided  in  the  conference  of  1890  was  the 
first  one  to  be  considered,  and  it  was  almost 
unanimously  agreed  that  from  the  point  of     ^onfereL 
view  of  general  education  all  three  types  of 
schools  should  be  considered  of  equal  worth.     Having  made 
this  concession  to  the  reformers  the  conservatives  could  with 
some  justice  insist  on  maintaining  the  gymnasial  curriculum 
intact  and  even  ask  for  additional  time  for  Latin  and  Greek, 
while  on  the  other  hand  they  took  the  wind  from  the  sails  of 
the  reform  party  by  destroying  one  of  its  strongest  arguments 
for  its  common  fundamental  course  without  Latin.     As  the 
results  have  shown,  the  conservative  party  was  on  the  whole 
successful  on  all  these  points. 

But  it  is  not  the  deliberations  of  the  June  Conference, 
however  distinguished  its  participants,  so  much  as  it  is  the 
Royal  Decree  of  November  26, 1900,  l  to  which 
we  must  turn  for  the  principles  underlying  and 
guiding  all  recent  reforms.  In  this  brief  docu- 
ment the  Emperor  boldly  and  forcefully  announces  the  re- 
forms he  wishes  inaugurated,  and  he  does  not  always  agree 
with  the  opinions  of  the  preceding  conference. 

1  See  Appendix  A  for  translation  in  full. 


428  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

Here,  then,  we  find  the  Emperor  declaring  that  "  with  ref- 
erence to  the  question  of  privileges  the  principle  must  be  that 
its  Declaration  as  *ne  Gymnasium^  the  Realgymnasium  and  the 
to  Equality  and  OberrealschuU  are  to  be  considered  of  equal 

Privileges.  value  in  the  training  for  general  culture,  and 
require  supplementing  only  in  so  far  as  for  certain  lines  of 
study  and  professional  pursuits  special  preparatory  studies 
are  necessary  which  do  not  enter — or  at  least  not  to  the  same 
extent — into  the  curriculum  of  each  institution.  Conse- 
quently provision  is  to  be  made  for  the  extension  of  the  privi- 
leges of  the  realistic  institutions.  In  this  there  is  indicated 
at  the  same  time  the  best  method  of  raising  the  repute  and 
increasing  the  attendance  at  these  schools  and  of  thus  effect- 
ing a  wider  spread  of  realistic  learning. 

Within  two  years  following  this  declaration  such  provisions 
were  officially  promulgated  whereby  the  privileges  of  both 
Privileges  of  Real  ^e  Realgymnasium  and  the  OberrealschuU 

schools  EX-  were  greatly  increased. 1  By  far  the  most  im- 
portant were  those  whereby  a  leaving-certificate 
from  a  Realgymnasium  now  admits  to  the  study  of  medicine, 
and  one  from  either  a  Realgymnasium  or  OberrealschuU  ad- 
mits to  the  study  of  law  and  to  courses  for  teachers  of  any 
subject  in  the  higher  schools.  In  other  words,  since  1902,  in 
Prussia  at  least,  six  years'  study  of  Latin  but  no  Greek  is 
required  for  admission  to  the  study  of  medicine,  while  neither 
Greek  nor  Latin  is  required  for  admission  to  the  study  of 
law,  teaching  or  technical  courses,  nor  even  for  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

Outside  of  Prussia  the  privileges  of  non-classical  schools 

are  as  yet  more  restricted. a     This  is  due  partly  to  the  stronger 

hold  which  the  classics  have  in  such  states  as 

o£«UsStein      Saxony>  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg,  and  partly 

to  the  less  developed  condition  of  these  schools. 

All  states  are  alike  in  requiring  the  leaving-certificate  of  a 

1  For  complete  statement  see  Appendix  0. 

*  For  a  comparative  table  for  all  states  see  Appendix  D, 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  429 

Gymnasium  for  admission  to  the  study  of  theology,  and,  since 
the  practice  of  medicine  is  controlled  by  the  Imperial  Gov- 
ernment, in  all  states  the  certificate  of  a  Realgymnasiurn  as 
well  as  of  a  Gymnasium  admits  to  the  study  of  medicine. 
Wurtemberg  and  Saxony  are  the  only  important  states  out- 
side of  Prussia  that  admit  Realgymnasium  graduates  to  the 
study  of  law,  while  Prussia  stands  practically  alone  in  admit- 
ting to  this  study  graduates  of  the  Oberrealschule  as  well. 
Among  the  principal  states  Prussia  also  stands  alone  in  ad- 
mitting both  graduates  of  the  Oberrealschule  and  Realgym- 
nasium to  the  study  of  classical  philology  and  history  and 
graduates  of  the  Oberrealschule  to  the  study  of  modern  phil- 
ology in  preparation  for  teaching  these  subjects  in  the  higher 
schools.  Outside  of  Prussia,  too,  the  privileges  of  graduates 
of  the  Oberrealschule  are  considerably  limited  with  reference 
to  the  higher  civil  service  and  technical  positions. 

This  reform  has  been  carried  through  in  the  face  of  united 
and  long-standing  opposition  on  the  part  of  universities  and 
learned  professions — an  opposition  based  partly 
on  the  conviction  that  classical  education  alone 
properly  fits  for  professional  study,  and  partly, 
though  perhaps  less  openly,  on  the  fear  that  the  learned  pro- 
fessions would  become  over-crowded  or  would  lose  their  social 
prestige  and  exclusiveness  by  the  admission  of  non-classical 
school  graduates.  This  social  side  of  the  question — the  in- 
fluence of  class  distinction  and  bureaucratic  control — has 
always  to  be  borne  in  mind.  Now  that  the  reform  has  been 
so  largely  accomplished  some  of  the  gymnasial  party  seek  to 
minimize  its  importance  by  explaining  the  recognition  as  a 
mere  matter  of  politeness  or  of  administrative  formality. 

The  liberals  see  in  this  reform  a  far  greater  significance 
and  more  truly  appreciate,  I  believe,  its  importance.     It  is 
said  that  "  what  has  been  consummated  is  noth- 
ing less  than  the  overthrow  of  the  pillars  of  our  views  of  Liberals, 
present  educational  structure  and  the  founding 
of  a  new  one — the  overthrow  of  the  dogma  of  the  unapproach- 
able and  incomparable  cultural  value  of  the  classical  Ian- 


430  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

guages."1  Similarly,  Professor  Paulsen  says,  "With  the 
school  conference  of  1900  and  the  Royal  Decree  of  Novem- 
ber, 1900,  the  gymnasia!  politics  of  the  nineteenth  century  — 
politics  that  bore  the  stamp  of  '  the  new  humanism  '  and  '  the 
gymnasial  monopoly  '  —  came  to  a  definite  close.  We  have 
taken  our  stand  upon  a  new  principle  —  the  principle  of  the 
equal  value  of  modern  and  classical  education."  2 

The  general  acceptance  of  this  principle  means  that  the 
realistic  schools  are  recognized  as  occupying  a  place  side  by 
*he  °^  Gymnasium,  of  equal  impor- 


Purpose  of       tance  and  value  for  all  purposes  of  general  cul- 

'  Equalization."  o^  mean  neCCS- 


sarily  that  each  type  of  school  prepares  equally  well  for  any 
and  all  professional  studies,  nor  that  all  higher  school  grad- 
uates are  admitted  without  restrictions  to  all  university 
courses.  Naturally  some  courses  require  special  preparation 
which  may  not  be  included  in  the  curriculum  of  the  differ- 
ent higher  schools.  Thus,  for  example,  courses  in  element- 
ary Greek  and  in  Latin  writers  on  jurisprudence  are  provided 
by  the  universities  for  students  without  classical  training. 
Such  knowledge,  although  it  may  be  obtained  elsewhere,  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  study  of  law  as  at  present  con- 
ducted at  German  universities.  It  is  on  this  account  that  the 
official  regulations  referring  to  the  study  of  law  specifically 
recommend  the  Gymnasium  as  furnishing  the  best  prepara- 
tion for  such  study.  Similarly,  when  these  regulations  make 
it  possible  for  graduates  of  the  Oberrealschule,  who  have 
never  studied  Latin  or  Greek,  to  pursue  courses  in  classical 
philology,  no  one  imagines  that,  therefore,  the  non-classical 
schools  furnish  as  satisfactory  a  preparation  for  such  study 
as  the  classical. 

The  purpose  of  the  recent  reform  has  not  been  to  declare 
equal  what  is  inherently  unequal,  but  to  remove  external 
restrictions  and  social  and  legal  differences  between  the 

'Schmeding:  Pddagogisches  Archiv,  Vol.  45,  p.  714. 

s  Die  h8heren  Schulenunddas  Universitatsstudium  im20.  Jahrhundert. 


TSB  PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL  RtiFORM  43l 

schools ;  and  it  means  that  a  little  more  is  to  be  left  to  the 
initiative  of  the  individual  in  obtaining  such  special  knowl- 
edge as  may  be  indispensable  for  the  various 
university  courses.     The  pedagogical  question,    its  significance, 
therefore,  as  to  what  school  furnishes  the  best 
preparation  for  particular  professions  is  not  thereby  decided. 
Naturally  the  adherents  of  the  old  Gymnasium  still  insist 
that  their  school  affords  the  best  preparation  for  any  of  the 
professions— even,  some  claim,  for  technical  courses.     Argu- 
ments, therefore,  when  not  mere  generalizations 
about  "formal  discipline,"  are  often  based  on  a 
misinterpretation  of  facts.   Time  and  again  the 
testimony  of  university  professors  and  others  has  been  cited 
to  show  that  gymnasial  graduates  surpass  their  fellows  from 
the  other  schools,  but  just  as  often  is  the  patent  fact  over- 
looked that  such  comparisons  are  unjust  and 
invalid  since  the   factor   of   selection,   which    Ne^le' 

meiit  of  Selection. 

largely  determines  the  class  and  character  of 
students  going  to  each  school,  is  entirely  overlooked.  The 
Gymnasium  has  been  from  the  first  the  "Gelehrtenschufo  " — 
the  school  for  the  scholar  and  the  learned  professions.  Natu- 
rally, then,  it  would  attract  a  different  kind  of  student  than 
would  the  more  or  less  despised  and  "  utilitarian"  Realschule. 
It  must  be  said  that  the  reformers,  on  the  other  hand,  make 
a  similar  mistake  when  they  point  to  the  incompetence  of 
the  gymnasial  graduates,  for  they  invariably  have  in  mind 
another  selected  group — those  who  attend  the  Gymnasium 
not  on  account  of  its  scholastic  superiority  but  for  its  social 
prestige  and  the  many  external  privileges  open  alone  to  its 
graduates. 

The  marked  inequality  of  the  two  schools  with  respect 
both  to  the  privileges  of  their  graduates  and  their  social  and 
political  standing  has  in  the  past  not  only  pre- 
vented just  comparison  of  their  relative  worths 
but  has  also  greatly  hindered  their  free  and 
natural  development.     What  the  future  has  in  store  is  of 
course  difficult  to  predict,  but  it  is  certain  that,  to  the  extent 


432  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

that  all  types  of  schools  are  freed  from  purely  external  handi- 
caps or  advantages,  just  to  that  extent  will  they  stand  solely 
upon  their  intrinsic  merits  and  be  fairly  judged  only  by  their 
actual  results.  The  relative  values  and  advantages  of  classical 
and  modern  education  are  still  open  questions  in  Germany  as 
elsewhere,  much  discussed  and  perhaps  never  to  be  finally 
settled.  Since  1900  the  question  stands  a  far  better  chance 
to  receive  fairer  treatment  and  to  be  studied  from  a  peda- 
gogical rather  than  a  political  standpoint — certainly  an  im- 
portant advance  in  educational  development.  As  one  writer 
puts  it :  "  Each  of  the  three  nine-class  schools  can  henceforth 
compete  with  the  others  for  the  recognition  of  its  particular 
services  under  essentially  equal  conditions.  Each  is  now 
enabled  to  stand  in  its  own  strength  and  is  allowed  to  move 
treely  in  its  own  peculiar  field.  Thus  all  three  types  of  school 
have  received  an  effective  means  of  more  fully  developing 
their  individual  excellences,  and  it  must  be  viewed  as  a  very 
great  cultural  gam  for  all  higher  professions  that  henceforth 
there  will  be  found  associated  therein  men  that  have  come 
by  the  different  paths  of  the  several  higher  schools."  1 

What  will  be  the  effect  of  this  reform  upon  the  organiza- 
tion, curricula,  and  attendance  of  the  higher  schools  and  the 
universities?  It  is  too  soon  to  speak  positively. 
However,  certain  tendencies  are  already  notice- 
able and  recent  statistics  are  significant.  In 
the  first  place,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  action  with  regard 
to  privileges  has  been  the  means  of  preserving  at  least  for 
some  time  to  come  the  distinctive  character  of 
tn6  °^  Gymnasium.  It  was  evident  long  before 
the  Conference  of  1900  that  either  the  Gymna- 
sium must  modify  its  curriculum  to  meet  the  increasing  de- 
mands of  modern  life  or  else  the  modern  schools  must  be 
allowed  to  do  this  by  receiving  equal  privileges  with  the 
Gymnasium.  By  accepting  the  latter  alternative  in  their 
Brunswick  Declaration  and  acting  upon  it  in  the  June  Con- 

1  C.  Rethwisch  in  Lexis :   Die  Reform  des  hoheren  Schulwesens  in 
Preuasen,  p.  34. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  433 

ference,  the  gymnasial  party  were  enabled  to  obtain  increased 
time  for  Latin  and  Greek  and  to  preserve  the  gymnasial  cur- 
riculum essentially  unchanged.  Just  to  the  extent  to  which 
the  other  schools  may  now  help  meet  the  modern  demands, 
to  that  extent  has  the  pressure  upon  the  Gymnasium  been 
removed.  And  so,  while  the  position  of  the  Gymnasium  may 
not  hereafter  be  so  large  or  exclusive,  it  seems  likely  to  be- 
come more  firmly  established  and  more  effective. 

With  the  overthrow  of  the  dictum  that  the  Gymnasium  is 
not  necessarily  the  best  nor  the  only  preparation  for  all  higher 
study,  has  come  the  recognition  of  the  converse  (b)  To  Empha8ize 
principle  that  certain  preparatory  courses  lead  individuality  of 
naturally  to  certain  higher  courses,  and  that  the 
Realgymnasium  or  the  Oberrealschule  may  even  be  better 
suited  than  the  Gymnasium  to  prepare  for  scientific  and 
technical  courses.  They  are  at  least  officially  recognized  at 
present  as  being  as  good  as  the  Gymnasium.  Of  course,  the 
Gymnasium  will  long — perhaps  always — remain  the  school 
whose  peculiar  function  it  is  to  fit  for  the  learned  professions. 
That  each  of  the  higher  schools  has  its  distinctive  function 
and  should  aim  to  develop  its  individual  character  is  empha- 
sized in  the  Royal  Decree.  "In  thus  acknowledging  the 
equality  of  the  three  types  of  schools,  it  will  be  possible  more 
thoroughly  to  strengthen  the  peculiar  nature  of  each."  The 
desire  seems  to  be  that  each  school  shall  be  free  to  do  its  own 
peculiar  work  and  to  prove  itself  worthy  of  gaining  or  of 
retaining  a  place  in  the  educational  system.  Whether  the 
Gymnasium,  freed  from  all  external  aids,  can  retain  its  place 
at  the  head  remains  to  be  seen.  No  doubt  it  will  become 
numerically  less  dominant,  but  we  cannot  be- 
lieve that  Germany  will  ever  consent  to  giving 
it  a  second  place  in  her  affections.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  it  still  possesses  some  exclusive  privileges, 
and  that  long  after  these  are  gone  it  will  still  retain  its  social 
prestige.  To  an  outsider,  however,  it  seems  merely  a  matter 
of  time  for  the  social  to  follow  the  educational  and  external 
equality  of  all  higher  schools. 


434  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

Not  only  has  the  recognition  of  the  equality  of  the  schools 
brought  about  this  emphasis  of  the  individuality  of  each,  but 
there  is  also  discernible  an  opposite  tendency 
(°Untf° rmity t0  toward  uniformity.  As  students  of  the  Rea^- 
gymnasium  and  Oberrealschule  come  to  realize 
that  various  university  courses  are  open  to  them,  there  will 
come  a  demand  for  the  requisite  preparatory  studies  in  the 
higher  schools.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  Ministry  has 
already  permitted  the  teaching  of  Latin  in  the  Oberrealschule. 
But  this  requires  special  permission  in  each  case  from  the 
central  authorities,  must  be  given  only  as  private  instruction, 
and  is  placed  under  other  close  restrictions.  Perhaps  there 
is  some  ground  for  the  fear  expressed  by  Professor  Uhlig  as 
early  as  1900,  that  eventually  one  school  will  trespass  so  much 
on  the  field  of  the  other  that  there  will  have  to  be  instituted 
a  fourth  type — a  real  Realschule.  But  the  authorities  are 
alive  to  such  possibilities,  and  equality  is  not  likely,  at  least 
not  very  soon,  to  lead  to  uniformity.  The  need 
^or  PreParatory  courses,  especially  in  Latin  and 
Greek  for  non-classical  students,  was  recognized 
as  soon  as  the  question  arose  of  their  admission  to  university 
study  demanding  such  preparation.  This  has  been  provided 
for  by  introducing  these  courses,  with  the  exception  of 
elementary  Latin,  into  the  universities  rather  than  into  the 
higher  schools. 1  On  the  other  hand,  the  extension  of  the 
"  reform  "  curriculum  which  allows  a  freer  transfer  from  one 
school  to  another  for  students  desiring  to  change  their  course 
will  obviate  the  need  for  similar  courses  in  the  several  schools 
and  allow  them  to  emphasize  their  special  characteristics. 
On  the  whole,  then,  it  seems  that  the  recognition  of  the  gen- 
eral and  external  equality  of  the  three  types  of  higher  schools 
will,  if  anything,  aid  in  allowing  them  to  develop  whatever 

1  Since  1902  two  such  courses  have  been  provided  at  all  Prussian  uni- 
versities: one  in  beginning  Greek,  and  the  other  covering  two  semesters, 
an  introduction  into  the  literary  sources  of  Roman  Law.  The  latter 
courses  require  an  elementary  knowledge  of  Latin  which  in  the  case  of 
graduates  of  the  Oberrealschule  must  be  obtained  by  private  instruction. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  435 

individual  superiorities  they  may  possess.  This  is  perhaps 
the  greatest  gain  that  the  reform  of  1900  has  brought  with  it. 
One  school  has  been  helped  as  much  as  the  other,  the  Gym- 
nasium has  been  released  from  the  intolerable  position  of 
trying  to  cover  all  fields,  the  realistic  schools  have  been  given 
the  opportunity  to  develop  more  fully  and  freely  in  their  own 
sphere. 

What  effects  the  reform  will  eventually  have  upon  the  at- 
tendance at  the  different  schools  cannot  be  definitely  pre- 
dicted. The  natural  inference  is  that  the  real- 
istic schools  will  gain  at  the  expense  of  the  ^tendance* 
classical.  Enough  time  has  not  elapsed  to  show 
permanent  or  final  effects.  A  study  of  the  changes  both  in 
the  number  and  attendance  of  the  higher  schools  during  the 
last  decade  will  show  certain  definite  tendencies.  Both  the 
Real-  and  the  Oberrealschulen  have  continued  their  rapid 
growth.  In  the  nine  years  from  1894  to  1903,  both  in  num- 
ber and  in  attendance  the  Oberrealschtilen  have  more  than 
doubled,  while  the  Realschulen  have  likewise  (1)  Real  School8 
more  than  doubled  in  number  but  not  quite  in  and  Reaigym- 
attendance.  The  Realgymnasien  reached  their 
lowest  ebb  in  1899,  but  since  that  time  have  shown  signs  of 
vigorous  growth  owing  to  the  new  lease  of  life  granted  them 
in  1900;  so  that  in  1903  they  numbered  seven  more  than  in 
1894,  and  enrolled  a  slightly  larger  number  of  students.  The 
Gymnasien  have  had  an  even,  continuous  growth  since  1892, 
gaining  slightly  before  1900  at  the  expense  of 
the  Realgymnasium,  but  since  that  time  gaining 
relatively  less  than  either  of  the  other  schools. 
Table  I.  shows  in  detail  the  growth  of  the  schools  before  and 
during  this  period.  The  percentages  indicate  the  proportion 
of  the  total  enrollment  found  in  the  three  types  of  schools. 
Thus  while  in  1860  the  classical  schools  enrolled  69  per  cent, 
of  the  whole  number  of  secondary  school  students,  in  1890 
this  percentage  had  decreased  to  60,  in  1900  to  58.4,  while  in 
1903  the  percentage  was  only  55.2. 


436 


GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 


TABLE   I. 

(a)  Number  of  Higher  Schools  in  Prussia. 


Year. 

Classical. 

Semi-classical. 

Non-classical. 

Total. 

Gym. 

Progym. 

Real- 
gym. 

Real- 
prog. 

O.  R.  S. 

Realsch. 

I860   

136 
228 
249 
259 
268 
274 
273 
276 
279 
287 
291 
295 
303 
315 
324 

24 
88 

35 
38 
46 
44 
45 
49 
48 
51 
49 
59 
52 
44 
39 

32 
80 
84 
89 
87 
86 
86 
83 
79 
79 
75 
76 
80 
86 
93 

3 
91 
99 
86 
86 
75 
73 
64 
38 
26 
24 
21 
20 
19 
23 

'3 
14 
9 
22 
24 
26 
28 
30 
35 
37 
40 
42 
47 

34 
17 
19 
37 
53 
68 
73 
78 
106 
123 
131 
138 
141 
144 
145 

229 
449 
489 
523 
549 
569 
574 
576 
578 
596 
605 
626 
636 
650 
671 

1875  

1880  

1885  

1890  

1894 

1895  

1896  

1897  

1898   

1899  

1900        

1901  

1902 

1903  .  .  . 

(b)  Attendance  at  Higher  Schools  in  Prussia. 


Classical. 

Semi-classical. 

Non-classical. 

Year 

Tntnl 

Gym. 

Pro- 
gym. 

Per 

cent. 

Real- 
gym. 

Real- 
prog. 

Per 
cent. 

O.R.S. 

Real- 
sch. 

Per 

cent. 

1  '  'i  .u. 

I860.. 

38,078 

2,100 

69 

11,058 

276 

6,780 

58,292 

1875..     . 

60,029 

3,511 

61 

26,955 

13,082 

5,223 

114,800 

1880..     . 

75*,  190 

4.034 

63 

27,066 

13.204 

1,656 

5,390 

126,600 

1885..     . 

80,019 

4,272 

63 

24,706 

9,050 

5.120 

10,082 

133.251 

1890..     . 

77,811 

5,445 

60 

26,272 

8,858 

25" 

4,177 

17,238 

is" 

139,801 

1894  .  .     . 

77,300 

4,474 

57 

25,213 

7,238 

23 

9,715 

19,478 

20 

143,418 

1895.       . 

77,791 

4,672 

57 

25,148 

6,720 

22 

10,571 

19,930 

21 

144.832 

1896.. 

80,024 

5,431 

57.2 

24,341 

6,287 

21 

11,357 

20.887 

22 

149,327 

1897  .  .     . 

81,591 

5,360 

57.4 

23,704 

4,130 

18.4 

12,692 

24.104 

24.3 

151,581 

1898..     . 

»j,123 

5,941 

58.3 

21,609 

2,625 

15.5 

12,450 

27,839 

26.2 

155,887 

1899..     . 

87,701 

5,664 

58.4 

20,863 

2.197 

14.4 

14,153 

29.331 

27.2 

159,909 

1900..     . 

89,257 

7,097 

58.4 

21,433 

1,815 

14.1 

15,134 

30,149 

27i5 

164,885 

1901..     . 

91,492 

6,229 

57.2 

22,693 

1.831 

14.3 

16,322 

32,387 

28.5 

170,954 

1902..     . 

94.845 

5,211 

56.2 

24,381 

1,602 

14.6 

17.650 

34,420 

29.2 

178,109 

1903..     . 

97,892 

4,420 

55.2 

26,393 

2,099 

15.5 

19,992 

34,632 

29.3 

185,428 

(c)  Attendance  in  other  German  States  and  Empire  (1902). 


Gym. 

Progym. 

K.-al- 
gym. 

Real- 
prog. 

O.  R.  S. 

Realsch. 

Total. 

Bavaria  
Saxony  
WUrtemburg  . 
Baden  .  .  . 

17,100 
6,497 
4,304 
4  714 

2,488 

296 
245 

1,113 
4,889 
1,605 
1  429 

780 
802 

4',527 
3  K97 

13.675 
8,579 
3,234 
3  194 

34.376 
19.905 
14,746 
13,781 

Empire  .  .  . 

144.673 

9.007 

39.077 

3.418 

31.707 

74.005 

301.887 

1  Compiled  from  Lexis :  Die  Reform  df»  hiiheren  Schulwesens  in  Preussen,  and 
from  Ergdnzungaheften  (Noa.  11-21,  1894-1005),  of  CentrnlMatt,  etc. 

*  Compiled  from  Lexis :  Das  Unterrichtawesen  im  Deutschen  Reich.  Vol.  IL,  p.  218. 


PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM 


437 


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tendency  to  increase  the  number  of  real  school  graduates  who 
take  up  university  study.     That  the  extension      (e)  Effecte  on 
of  the  privileges   of  university   study  to  all        university 
schools  would  have  such  a  result  was  to  be  ex-       A"61^11**- 
pected.     The  marked  increase  during  the  first  few  years  fol- 
lowing 1900  is  undoubtedly  only  the  beginning  of  a  much 


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438  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

larger  attendance  in  the  future.  As  can  be  seen  from  Table 
Relative  increase  ^"  *ne  number  of  students  at  the  Prussian  uni- 
of  students  from  versities  entering  on  the  leaving-certificates  of 
°8'  Realgymnasien  and  Oberrealschulen  increased 
during  the  years  1902  to  1905  over  430  per  cent,  (from  601  to 
2599),  while,  what  is  even  more  remarkable,  the  number  en- 
tering on  Gymnasien  leaving-certificates  increased  over  200 
per  cent,  (from  6914  in  1901-02  to  14124  in  1904-05).  Al- 
ready in  the  year  1904-05,  over  9  per  cent,  of  the  students  of 
law  and  medicine  entered  on  leaving-certificates  of  Real- 
gymnasien and  Oberrealschulen.  When  it  is  remembered 
that  this  is  only  three  years  from  the  time  these  faculties 
were  first  thrown  open  to  such  students,  the  percentage  is 
certainly  large.  Moreover,  to  make  the  comparison  more 
equal,  if  only  the  number  of  first  semester  students  in 
1904-05  is  considered,  it  will  be  found  that  the  percentage 
entering  from  Realgymnasien  and  Oberrealschulen  is  consid- 
erably higher  (13  per  cent,  in  law,  10.5  per  cent,  in  medicine 
and  31.2  per  cent,  in  philosophy). 

The  following  statistics  (Table  III.)  indicate  the  same  gen- 
eral tendency  toward  increased  university  attendance  and 
especially  a  growth  in  the  number  of  real  school 
graduates  who  take  up  advanced  study.   In  1895 
less  than  19  per  cent,  of  the  whole  number  of 
Realgymnasium  graduates  went  to  the  universities,  while  in 
1904  over  50  per  cent,  declared  their  intention  of  so  doing. 

Likewise  the  fact  is  here  shown  that  a  very  large  propor- 
tion of  all  university  students  are  still  furnished  by  the  Gym- 
nasien. But  it  will  be  seen  that  this  proportion 
has  diminished.  Thus,  of  the  whole  number 
who  entered  in  1885-86,  94  per  cent,  came  from 
Gymnasien,  while  in  1903-04  only  86  per  cent,  came  from 
such  schools,  and  of  course  the  proportion  from  real  schools 
has  increased  correspondingly. 

The  figures  of  the  table  also  bring  out  another  difference 
between  Gymnasien  and  real  schools  :  a  much  larger  propor- 
tion of  the  students  remain  to  the  end  and  finish  the  course 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM 


439 


in  the  Gymnasien  than  in  the  other  schools.  Of  the  whole 
number  of  higher  school  graduates  in  1903-04,  only  20  per 
cent,  were  from  real  schools.  "When  these  pupils 
entered  school  nine  years  ago,  the  real  school 
students  constituted  over  49  per  cent,  of  the 
total  enrollment  in  Sexta.  The  sanie  fact  can  be  seen  by 
comparing  Tables  I.  and  III.  Eliminating  the  influence  of 
the  preponderance  of  real  schools  among  the  six-class  schools 
by  taking  only  the  nine-class  schools,  it  will  be  found  that  in 
1903  the  Gymnasien  contained  68  per  cent,  of  the  whole  num- 
ber enrolled,  the  real  schools  32  per  cent.,  while  of  the  whole 
number  of  graduates  of  the  same  year,  the  Gymnasien  turned 
out  80  per  cent.,  the  real  schools  only  20  per  cent. 

All  this  goes  to  show,  of  course,  that  a  larger  number  of 
real  school  students  drop  out  during  the  course  to  enter 
practical  life,  and  that  the  Gymnasien  hold  their  students 
better  to  the  end. 

TABLE  III. 

Number  of  Students  Receiving  Leaving-Ceriificales  from  Pntssian 
Higher  Schools  and  Number  Declaring  their  Intention  of  Enter- 
ing the  Universities. 


Year. 

Gymnasien. 

Realgymnasien. 

Oberrealschulen. 

Total. 

To  Univ. 

Total. 

To  Univ. 

Total. 

To  Univ. 

1885-86  

3,505 
3,776 
4,169 
4,587 
4,539 
4.785 

2,913 
2,731 
3,049 
3,342 
3,303 
3,624 

567 
553 
726 
758 
703 
723 

181 
104 
135 
209 
215 
363 

30 
34 
86 
211 
310 
462 

'ie 

213 

1891  92        

1894-95  

1897-98  

19(10-01   

1903-04  

It  may  be  of  interest  to  compare  the  relative  number  of 
classical  and  non-classical  students  in  technical  high  schools 
with  the  proportions  given  in  the  preceding 
tables  for  the  universities.     Here,  too,  the  gym- 
nasial  prepared  students  constitute  the  largest 
single  element  although  the  percentage  of  real  school  students 
is  very  much  larger  than  at  the  universities.     This  is  shown 


GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 


in  Table  IV.,  which  gives  the  attendance  at  the  three  Eoyal 
Technical  High  Schools  of  Prussia  for  the  winter  semester 
1902-03. 

TABLE  Ty.i 

Attendance  at  Prussian  Technical  High  Schools  (Berlin,  Hanover, 
Aachen),  W.  S.  1902-03. 


Preparatory  School. 

Attendance. 

Per  cent. 

Gymnasium   

2429 

46  2 

1  601 

Oberrealschulen  

693 

V             43  3 

Other  Realschulen  

27 

Foreign  Schools  

618 

11  5 

Total  

5368 

100 

The  "  Reform 
Schools. 


Recent 
Development. 


One  of  the  most  notable  developments  within  the  past 
decade  has  been  the  increasing  growth  and  popularity  of  the 
so-called  "  Reformansta.lt 'en"  that  is,  schools  of 
the  Altona  and  Frankfort  type2  in  which  the 
study  of  Latin  is  not  begun  until  the  fourth 
year  (Untertertia),  so  that  there  is  no  differentiation  between 
Gymnasium,  Realgymnasium  and  Oberrealschule  during  the 
first  three  years.  Despite  strong  opposition  from  the  con- 
servatives, these  schools  made  rapid  headway 
during  the  period  from  1892  to  1900  ;  while  the 
Eoyal  Decree  of  the  latter  year  gave  an  added 
impetus  to  their  growth,  so  that  from  1900  to  1904  more 

1  From  Monatschrift  fur  hohere  Schulen,  Vol.  II.,  p.  589. 

9  These  types  differ  in  minor  details.  The  Altona  curriculum  includes 
only  Realgymnasien  and  Realschulen,  while  the  Frankfort  plan  applies 
to  Gymnasien  as  well.  Both  begin  French  (rarely  English)  in  the  first  year 
and  Latin  in  the  fourth  year,  but  the  Altona  plan  introduces  English  in 
the  third  year  and  carries  it  six  years,  while  the  Frankfort  plan  begins 
English  only  in  the  sixth  year  carrying  it  four  years  but  with  more  hours 
per  year.  The  fact  of  note  here  is  that,  with  the  establishment  of  the 
Goethe-Gymnasium  at  Frankfort,  the  reform  was  for  the  first  time  ap- 
plied to  the  more  important  instruction  in  Latin  and  Greek  in  the  Gym- 
nasium— Greek  receiving  8  hours  per  week  for  4  years  instead  of  6  hours 
for  6  years  as  elsewhere. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  441 

reform  schools  were  established  than  in  all  the  years  preced- 
ing. In  1892  there  were  but  seven  reform  schools ;  in  1900 
the  number  had  grown  to  thirty-five,  while  by  August,  1904, 
they  numbered  seventy-one,  with  more  in  process  of  establish- 
ment. 

The  June  Conference  of  1900  showed  a  much  more  favor- 
able attitude  toward  these  schools  than  its  predecessor.   While 
opposed  to  the  immediate  and  universal  adop-     Attitude  of  the 
tion  of  the  reform  curricula,  it  was  not  averse       conference 
to  allowing  them  freer  and  wider  trial.     The 
Emperor  puts  it  as  follows  in  the  Eoyal  Decree  :  "  The  estab- 
lishment of  schools  with  the  Altona  and  Frankfort  curricula 
has  heretofore  justified  itself,  on  the  whole,  for  those  places 
where  it  has  been  tried.   Since  this  arrangement 
provides  a  common  elementary  course  identical  ^^ sch^is" 
with  that  of  the  Realschulen,  it  likewise  affords 
no  inconsiderable  social  advantages.     I  desire,  therefore,  not 
only  that  the  experiment  be  continued  in  such  manner  as  to 
be  most  effective,  but  also  that  it  be  tested  more  widely  where 
conditions  make  it  advisable." 

Accordingly,  the  plan  has  received  this  more  extended  and 
effective  testing.  Since  1900  several  of  these  schools  have 
turned  out  their  first  graduates  who  according  to  all  reports 
have  shown  themselves  in  university  work  and  otherwise  the 
equal  of  graduates  of  the  old  Gymnasium.  In  1903,  Dr.  Alt- 
hoff,  a  member  of  the  ministry,  declared  in  a  speech  in  the 
Upper  Chamber :  "  The  experiences  up  to  the  present  with 
these  reform  institutions,  especially  with  respect  to  Latin,  are 
very  favorable  and  we  have  had  reports  from  the  universities, 
according  to  which  students  who  have  been  prepared  at  the 
Goethe-Gymnasium  at  Frankfort  have  distin- 
guished themselves  especially  in  the  ancient 
languages."  "  However,"  the  speaker  goes  on 
to  say,  "  to  judge  from  these  single  instances  would,  of  course, 
be  erroneous ;  the  matter  is  not  fully  determined.  We  are  of 
the  opinion  that  the  position  of  the  Keformgymnasium  is 
still  unsettled,  that  it  is  an  experiment  concerning  the  out- 


442  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

come  of  which  we  will  be  able  to  judge  definitely  only  in  ten 
or  fifteen  years."1  More  recently  General  Inspector  Kein- 
hardt  made  the  assertion  in  the  Prussian  Chamber  that  of 
123  pupils  who  had  up  to  that  time  (March,  1905)  taken  the 
leaving  examinations  at  three  such  Reformgymnasien  only 
four  had  failed,  and  of  these  four  three  were  successful  six 
months  later. 2 

Meanwhile,  in  spite  of  official  encouragment  and  successful 
work,  the  opposition  to  these  schools  has  by  no  means  died 

out.     Those  still  bound  to  traditional  methods 
Pedagogical'       °^  teaching  the  classical  languages  and  with 

unshaken  faith  in  the  supreme  cultural  and 
disciplinary  value  of  such  study  vigorously  oppose  the  reform 
organization  and  methods  on  pedagogical  grounds — more 
vigorously  perhaps  than  logically.  At  the  basis  of  much  of 
this  lies  the  deeply  intrenched  faith  in  the  formal  discipline 
theory  in  its  older  and  more  untenable  form — a  belief  that 
the  very  difficulty,  disagreeableness,  or  non-practical  charac- 
ter of  a  study  and  the  consequent  compulsion  to  which  the 
student  must  be  subjected,  constitute  in  themselves  a  most 
valuable  training  and  the  best  preparation  for  future  study  or 
practical  life.  And,  it  is  contended,  no  subject  meets  these 
requirements  so  well  as  the  classical  languages.  "  The  work 
of  developing  the  abilities  necessary  to  university  study  (the 
peculiar  function  of  the  Gymnasium)  is  best  accomplished 
by  means  of  a  curriculum  which  makes  from  first  to  last  a 
single  field  of  knowledge,  and  one  whose  mastery  demands 
the  energetic  application  of  youthful  powers,  the  principal 
subject  of  study.  The  effects  of  such  an  arrangement  cannot 
be  replaced  by  any  correlation  or  concentration,  however 
skilful,  of  the  various  kinds  of  subject  matter  of  instruc- 
tion." !  This  reference,  of  course,  is  to  the  curriculum  of 

1  Das  humanistische  Gymnasium,  Vol.  XIV.,  p.  127. 

9  Monatschrift  fur  hShere  Schulen,  May,  1905,  p.  229. 

8  G.  Uhlig :  Theses  concerning  the  preservation  and  extension  of  the 
individuality  of  the  humanistic  Gymnasium,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  20,  of  Das 
humanistische  Gymnasium. 


'  «O<0«/<V^ 

THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  443 

the  Realgymnasium.  Numerous  other  arguments  are  ad- 
vanced especially  against  the  Reformgymnasium  and  the 
modern  methods  of  language  instruction — against  beginning 
with  a  modern  instead  of  an  ancient  language,  against  short- 
ening and  intensifying  the  course  in  Latin  and  Greek,  against 
studying  foreign  languages  one  after  another  instead  of  side 
by  side.  They  are  best  substantiated  or  refuted  by  careful 
comparisons  of  actual  results,  which  are  becoming  more  and 
more  accessible  as  the  number  of  reform  schools  increases. 

Many  object  to  the  new  schools  for  fear  that  social  and 
class  distinctions  will  be  broken  down  by  thus  uniting  real 
schools  with  Gymnasien  so  that  for  three  or  for 
five  years  their  courses  are  identical.  This  is 
the  old  spectre  of  the  Einlieitsschule  which  it  was 
hoped  had  been  forever  banished  by  the  Conference  of  1890. 
The  dangers,  real  or  imaginary,  of  an  "  educated  proletariat," 
seem  thus  to  follow  in  the  train  of  this  movement.  The  feel- 
ing seems  to  be  more  or  less  prevalent  in  the  learned  profes- 
sions that  these  schools  encourage  undesirable  students  to 
continue  in  university  study  and  so  lead  to  an  overcrowding 
of  the  professions.  In  other  words,  the  ancient  languages 
taught  in  the  old  way  are  felt  to  be  the  best  "  sifters  "  for  the 
selection  of  those  most  capable  of  advanced  studies. 

To  an  American,  with  the  unlimited  opportunities  of  his 
own  country  in  mind,  such  fears  as  these  may  seem  ground- 
less or  imaginary,  but  with  the  far  harder  strug-    ^orm  schools 
gle  for  existence  and  more  highly  complex  or-     and  university 
ganization  of  life  in  older  countries  such  as      Attendance. 
Germany,  there  are  perhaps  some  grounds  for  apprehension. 
However,  I  believe  it  is  wrong  to  consider  a  particular  form 
of  school  organization  as  a  possible  cause  of  such  conditions. 
In  fact,  the  supporters  of  the  reform  schools,  on  the  other 
hand,  have  argued  that  their  introduction  would  tend  to 
diminish  university  attendance.     The  avowed  aim  of  the 
Gymnasium  has  been  to  prepare  for  university  study.     As 
long  as  it  is  preferred  for  social  reasons  and  as  long  as  it  is 
the  only  school  to  be  found  in  many  localities  (there  are  172 


444  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

cities  in  Prussia  with  no  other  higher  school  than  a  Gymna- 
sium) many  students  will  attend  and  will  be  led  by  the  pre- 
vailing custom  and  spirit  of  the  school  to  pass  over  to  the 
university — without  special  fitness  or  positive  inclination 
thereto.  Whereas,  if  the  Gymnasium  had  realistic  courses 
side  by  side  with  the  classical  such  students  would  have  the 
chance  to  go  into  technical,  commercial  and  other  pursuits 
for  which  they  are  better  suited.  If  university  attendance 
is  on  the  increase,  whether  this  be  viewed  as  an  evil  or  not,  it 
seems  more  probable  that  the  cause  lies  in  the  extension  of 
privileges — in  opening  up  to  graduates  of  the  real  schools 
many  fields  of  university  study  hitherto  closed  to  them. 
Figures  previously  given  make  it  quite  evident,  at  least, 
that  this  class  of  students  has  been  increasing  rapidly 
since  1901. 

In  the  light  of  conditions  in  other  European  countries  and 
America,  the  reform  schools,  on  the  whole,  seem  to  have  the 
largest  promise  for  the  future  and  to  accord 
best  with  the  trend  of  educational  thought,  the 
demands  of  modern  life,  and  with  Prussian  of- 
ficial predilections.  This  conclusion  is  confirmed  by  such 
words  as  the  following  from  Kudolf  Lehmann  in  the  semi- 
official publication  for  the  St.  Louis  Exposi- 
tion : '  "  When  [i  is  remembered  that,  so  far  as 
experience  entitles  one  at  present  to  any  judg- 
ment, it  has  borne  out  the  theoretical  arguments  for  the  re- 
form schools,  and  that  on  this  point  there  is  almost  universal 
agreement,  the  preference  which  the  Prussian  government 
has  for  some  time  shown  toward  these  schools  is  easily  under- 
stood and  the  prediction  is  justified  that  we  have  in  them  at 
least  one  if  not  the  form  of  school  organization  of  the  future." 
Of  even  greater  significance  is  the  fact  that  Dr.  Reinhardt, 
formerly  Director  of  the  Goethe-Gymnasium,  has  recently 
been  called  into  the  Ministry  of  Education  to  the  position  of 
General  Inspector  of  reform  schools.  Many  things  have 

1  Lexis :    Das  Unterrichtswesen  im  Deutsclwn  Reich,  Vol.  II.,  p.  109. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  445 

worked  together  to  cause  their  rapid  development  during  re- 
cent years ;  and,  although  the  conservatives  predict  and  hope 
that,  so  far  at  least  as  the  Reformgymnasium  is  concerned, 
the  movement  will  be  short-lived,  I  believe  that  the  future 
has  in  store  a  still  larger  if  not  a  predominant  place  for  the 
new  type  of  schools.  Their  economic  and  social  advantages 
have  often  been  pointed  out  and  have  largely  been  the  cause 
of  the  favor  with  which  the  Government  and  especially  the 
Ministry  of  Finance  have  looked  upon  them. 

From  the  pedagogical  standpoint,  the  reform  schools  seem 
to  be  decidedly  superior  to  the  old  Gymnasien  in  that  they 
accord  better  with  two  general  tendencies  which 
have  become  prominent  in  recent  educational 
thought  in  Germany.     The  first  of  these  is  the 
conviction  that  the  educational  ideal  must  mediate  between 
the  conception  of  all-round  culture  and  that  of 
extended  efforts  in  a  narrow  field.     The  latter     (1>  ^  Jf^ 

tional  Ideal. 

was  the  ideal  of  Sturm,  who  taught  from  first 
to  last  practically  nothing  but  the  classics  in  his  school.  The 
whole  history  of  the  Gymnasium  from  that  day  to  this  has 
been  marked  by  the  struggle  to  broaden  that  curriculum  and 
to  make  room  for  new  studies — in  other  words,  a  struggle  be- 
tween the  ideals  of  narrow  discipline  and  all-round  culture. 
As  modern  sciences  developed,  the  attempt  was  made  to  add 
one  study  after  another  to  the  curriculum  and  to  maintain 
at  the  same  time  its  universally  obligatory  character.  The 
limit  of  capacity  of  both  the  teacher  and  the  pupil  was  in- 
evitably overstepped  and  the  fundamental  error  of  the  prin- 
ciple gradually  came  to  be  recognized.  The  school  cannot 
be  "  all  things  to  all  men."  There  results  either  an  undue 
multiplication  of  studies  and  dissipation  of  energy  or  the  oft- 
condemned  over-pressure  of  pupils.  Even  at 
the  present  time  the  ten-year-old  lad  in  Sexta 
begins  with  seven  distinct  studies,  which  by  the 
time  Untertertia  is  reached  increase  to  ten  and  include  three 
foreign  languages.  This  longitudinal  splitting-up  is  the 
most  marked  characteristic  of  the  curriculum  pf  German 


446  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

higher  schools. *  The  evils  incident  thereto  have  long  been 
recognized  and  many  efforts  have  been  made  to  unify  and 
simplify  the  courses  of  study,  and  at  the  same  time  to  differ- 
entiate them  sufficiently  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  various 
classes  of  students  and  the  special  requirements  of  the  differ- 
ent fields  of  higher  study.  Chief  among  the 

Corrected   by  (a)  b  J    .  & 

Division  of  Prin-    means  f  or  accomplishing  this  has  been  the  dis- 
cipai  and  Sec-     tinction  drawn  between  principal  and  minor 

ondary  Subjects.  ,  .  ,-,      ,          i        i    .  ,     -t    , 

subjects.  Each  school  is  expected  to  empha- 
size those  particular  subjects  which  belong  to  its  peculiar 
sphere.  Thus  in  the  Gymnasium  German,  Latin,  Greek  and 
mathematics  constitute  the  main  subjects  and  receive  chief 
attention,  in  instruction  and  in  the  examinations ;  in  the 
Realgymnasium  either  French  or  English,  as  the  case  may 
be,  take  the  place  of  Greek ;  in  the  Oberrealschule  natural 
science,  French  and  English  take  the  place  of  Latin  and 
Greek ;  German  and  mathematics,  it  will  be  noticed,  are  com- 
mon to  all  schools.  The  danger  of  such  an  arrangement  is 
always  that  minor  subjects  will  not  only  receive  less  time  but 
will  be  taught  poorly  and  by  inefficient  teachers. 

An  additional  remedy  and,  I  believe,  an  even  more  effective 
one,  is  that  afforded  by  the  reform  curriculum  whose  chief 
virtue  lies  in  substituting  for  the  old,  diffuse 
an(^  Para^el  study  of  the  languages,  where  the 
difficulty  was  greatest,  a  shorter  and  more  in- 
tensive study  of  each  in  succession.  Beginning  with  French 
as  the  only  foreign  language  studied  during  the  first  three 
years,  more  than  the  normal  time  is  given  to  it.  It  thus  pre- 
pares for  the  study  of  Latin  or  English,  as  the  case  may  be, 

1  "This  splitting-up  defies  all  the  laws  of  psychology  and  all  the  ex- 
perience of  life.  Is  the  human  spirit,  especially  in  the  young  with  whom 
we  are  here  concerned,  a  sponge  that  can  absorb  a  great  mass  of  material 
without  injury  to  itself!  But  who  is  it  that  accomplishes  things  in  life? 
It  is  he  who  with  energy  and  singleness  of  aim  devotes  himself  wholly  to 
one  definite  task.  In  intellectual  as  well  as  in  industrial  life  the  division 
of  labor  is  continually  increasing."  M.  Heynacher  in  Lexis :  Die  Reform 
det  hQheren  fJchulwesens  in  Prcusscn,  p.  119. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  447 

begun  in  the  fourth  year.  Latin  in  turn  receives  chief  em- 
phasis for  two  years,  when  finally  in  the  sixth  year  Greek  is 
taken  up  with  more  hours  per  week  than  is  given  in  the  nor- 
mal curriculum. 

Along  with  this  reform  in  the  organization  of  the  curricu- 
lum has  gone  a  reform  in  the  methods  of  teaching  the  modern 
languages.  These  two  movements  are,  however,  Reform  Organiza- 
distinct.  The  one  is  not  always  found  beside  tion  Reform 
the  other.  Many  favor  the  reform  methods  but  MethodB  Di8tinct" 
oppose  the  reform  curriculum,  so  that  in  the  "old  "  Gymnasi- 
um will  be  found  the  "new"  methods.  Nevertheless  schools 
with  reform  curricula  employ  the  reform  methods  and  have 
always  been  their  chief  advocates  and  best  exponents.  Not 
only  have  the  new  methods  greatly  benefited  modern  language 
instruction  but  they  have  reacted  favorably  upon  the  teach- 
ing of  Latin  and  Greek  in  the  old  Gymnasium. 

It  seems  evident  to  an  American  that  experience  will  event- 
ually prove,  if  it  has  not  done  so  already,  that  on  the  whole 
the  reform  curriculum  is  pedagogically  superior  to  the  old 
and  productive  of  superior  results,  although  no  doubt  as  with 
all  other  improved  methods  it  demands  superior  teachers. 

The  second  note  running  through  very  much  of  recent 
thought  and  reiterated  with  increasing  insistence  is  the  de- 
mand, voiced  by  such-leaders  as  Paulsen,  Mat-  (2)  Second  Move. 
thias,  R.  Lehmann,  and  others,  for  greater  free-     ment  Demand 
clom  in  the  school ;   freedom  for  parent  and 
pupil  to  select  suitable  courses,  to  postpone  final  choice  of 
pursuits,  to  specialize  in  the  higher  classes,  to  substitute  good 
work  in  one  study  for  a  minimum  in  another ;  and,  finally, 
freedom  for  individual  teachers  and  schools  to  do  their  work 
with  less  minute  official  prescriptions. 

That  the  reform  schools  are  more  in  harmony  with  these 
demands  than  is,  for  example,  the  old  Gymnasium  is  quite 
evident.  The  three  or  five  years'  common  course  in  these 
schools  makes  possible  a  postponement  of  the  final  choice  of 
courses  and  so  of  pursuits,  and  allows  free  movement  to  and 
from  Gymnasium,  Realgymnasium,&ud  Oberrealschule  during 


448  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

these  years.  Naturally  too,  the  union  of  two  or  even  all  three 
of  higher  schools  in  a  single  institution,  which  the  reform 
plans  encourage,  furnishes  more  opportunities  of  choice  be- 
tween courses. 

A  great  variety  of  combinations  is  thus  to  be  found  in  re- 
form institutions.     One  or  two  or  all  three  types  of  nine-class 
schools  are  found  united  with  one  another  or 
Conibinations      w^h  a  Reolschule  or  other  six-class  school.    Of 
the  seventy-three  schools  in  Germany  in  1904 1 
where  the  reform  curriculum  is  followed,  twenty-three  were 
separate  schools  with  a  single  curriculum  (seven  Gymnasien, 
twelve   Realgymnasien,  and  five  Realprogymnasieri),  while 
fifty  were  institutions  where  two  or  more  kinds  of  schools 
were  united  in  one. 

Another  noteworthy  fact  is  that  there  are  seventeen  Gym- 

nasien  with  the  reform  curriculum ;  and  it  is  these  Reform- 

gymnasien  that  have  caused  the  greatest  strife 2 

The  2urgym" and  are  the  thorn  in  the  flesh  of  tbe  old  gym- 

nasial  party,  who  fear  that  these  schools  will 
'subvert  the  essential  nature  of  the  Gymnasium.  The  danger 
is  felt  to  lie  in  the  position  and  treatment  of  Greek  in  the 
reform  curriculum.  Begun  in  the  Untersecunda  it  must  be 
studied  for  a  single  year  by  the  large  number  of  one-year 

volunteer  students  who  leave  at  the  end  of  that 
TheGreBek°n°f  year-  Such  an  evidently  undesirable  state  of 

affairs  will  need  remedying  and,  the  prophets 
point  out,  either  Greek  will  become  wholly  optional  or  it 
will  be  pushed  forward  one  year.  In  the  latter  case  the  time 
left  (three  years)  will  be  entirely  inadequate  and  most  unsat- 

1  From  a  complete  list  of  the  various  reform  schools  in  Germany,  found 
in  Monatschrift  fur  hohere  Schulen,  Vol.  III.  (1904),  p.  281. 

*  A  proposition  to  establish  one  of  these  schools  is  generally  the  occa- 
sion for  much  discussion  and  argument,  sometimes  assuming  the  charac- 
ter of  a  political  campaign.  Thus  in  1904  two  such  attempts,  one  at 
Berlin,  the  other  at  Dresden,  to  establish  Reformgymnasien  occasioned 
much  controversy.  The  movement  succeeded  at  Dresden  but  failed  in 
Berlin,  which  up  to  the  present  (1905)  has  no  reform  schools  whatever. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  449 

isfactory  work  will  be  the  result.  In  either  case,  it  is  said, 
the  Gymnasium  will  no  longer  be  a  Gymnasium,  for  its  cen- 
tral and  distinguishing  characteristic — a  thorough  study  of 
Greek — will  have  disappeared.  That  the  future  has  some 
changes  in  store  is  quite  possible.  That  they  will  seriously 
injure  the  Gymnasien  need  not  be  feared,  at  least  by  those 
who  believe  that  the  ancient  languages  have  no  such  supreme 
and  unapproachable  value  as  compared  with  the  modern,  and 
that  consequently  an  intensive  study  of  French  or  English  is 
not  wholly  an  inadequate  substitute  for  Greek.  But  that 
there  are  many  who  even  at  the  present  day  do  not  believe 
this  is  evident  from  the  fine  irony  of  such  a  deliverance  as 
the  following  from  the  rector  of  a  Gymnasium : J  "  If  clas- 
sical instruction  is  allowed  to  fall  or  is  so  limited  that  it  be- 
comes worthless,  then  other  subjects  must  be 
substituted  which  will  no  doubt  prepare  better  Att"° Jat°'e8Con~ 
for  'practical  life'  and  for  the  'struggle  for 
existence.'  French  and  English  language  and  literature  will 
take  the  place  of  Latin  and  Greek,  our  graduates  will  leave 
the  Gymnasium  as  finished  Frenchmen  and  Englishmen, 
presumably  also  as  highly  modern  persons,  for  whom  Shake- 
speare and  the  French  writers  of  the  seventeenth  century 
will  be  just  as  much  superseded  as  are  Sophocles  and  Hor- 
ace, and  they  will  get  along  finely  in  the  world,  earn  much 
money  and  seek  their  fortune,  very  shortly  to  become 
Frenchmen,  Englishmen  or  Americans." 

Another  in  speaking  of  the  characteristic  of  the  Gymnar 
slum  and  of  English  as  an  alternative  for  Greek  goes  so  far 
as  to  say :  "  This  whole  principle  of  elective  and  alternative 
subjects  is  false.  Within  a  well  thought  out 
curriculum  nothing  must  be  left  to  the  incli-  < 
nation  of  the  learners ;  outside  the  closed  cir- 
cle of  instruction  they  have  enough  room  for  the  exercise  of 
their  favorite  activities.  For  who  would  loosen  a  single 

1  Otto  Kaemrael :    Der  Kampf  um  das  humanist ische  Gymnasium, 
Leipsic  (1901),  p.  52. 


450  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

stone  in  a  well-built  structure,  above  all  such  a  foundation 
and  corner  stone  as  Greek  in  the  Gymnasium?  Optional 
English  (in  place  of  Greek)  is  a  foreign  substance  in  the  or- 
ganism of  the  humanistic  school  and  injures  its  inmost  life 
and  healthy  growth." 1 

It  is  refreshing  to  turn  to  a  writer  like  Paulsen,  when,  for 
example,  he  points  out  the  essential  thing  in  education  as 

"  not  what  one  knows,  but  what  one  can  do 
The  Liberal  view,  with  his  knowledge — not  '  kennen '  but '  kon- 

nen.'  The  activity,  spontaneous,  living,  in- 
teresting, not  the  material,  is  of  importance  " ;  or  when  he 
savs :  "  We  must  hold  fast  to  the  ideal  of  humanistic  cult- 

tf 

ure,  but,  following  the  general  evolution,  draw  the  circle  of 
the  means  employed  a  little  larger.  The  ancient  languages 
are  for  the  twentieth  century  no  longer  what  they  were  for 
the  sixteenth  nor  yet  the  eighteenth ;  the  school,  which  does 
not  shape  life  but  serves  it,  could  not  and  dared  not  longer 
hesitate  to  adjust  itself  to  the  changed  conditions.  If  the 
new  order  of  things  gives  to  the  individuals  greater  freedom 
to  pursue,  with  different  gifts,  different  paths,  it  will  also 
serve  the  end  of  personal  culture.  Not  what  one  does,  I  re- 
peat in  conclusion,  but  how  one  does  it — that  he  does  it  with 
his  whole  soul — is  the  essential  thing  in  education.  May  the 
three  forms  of  higher  schools  as  a  result  (of  the  equalization 
of  privileges)  compete  in  all  good  and  useful  works,  but 
above  all  in  this,  in  leading  their  pupils  to  freer,  independent 
efforts — self-activity  alone  forms  the  inner  man."  2 

That  the  government  has  no  fear  of  English  in  the  Gym- 
nasium is  evident  from  the  words  of  the  Emperor  in  the 

Royal  Decree :  "  I  shall  offer  no  objection  to 
At Emperor th<     an  increase  ltl  the  number  of  hours  devoted  to 

Latin  in  the  Gymnasium  and  Realgymnasium. 
But  in  view  of  the  great  significance  which  the  knowledge 

1  H.  F.  Mliller  in  Das  humanistische  Gymnasium,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  162. 

*  Translated  from  an  excellent  article  on  "The  Principle  of  Equality 
among  the  three  Types  of  Higher  Schools,"  in  Lexis:  Die  Reform  des 
hOheren  Schulwesens  in  Preussen,  pp.  32-48. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL  REFORM  451 

of  English  has  assumed,  I  deem  it  of  especial  importance 
that  this  language  receive  more  attention  at  the  Gymnasium. 
Therefore  side  by  side  with  Greek,  English  is  everywhere  to 
be  an  alternative  subject  up  to  Untersecunda  and,  moreover, 
in  the  three  upper  classes  of  the  Gymnasium  where  local 
conditions  favor  it,  English  is  to  replace  French  as  the  obli- 
gatory subject,  while  the  latter  language  is  to  be  retained  as 
optional." 

This  provision  for  an  optional  course  is  evidently  intended 
to  help  the  Gymnasium  meet  modern  needs  and  to  furnish 
an  alternative  course  for  those  indisposed  tow- 
ard or  incapable  of  mastering  Greek.  The 
apparently  anomalous  regulation  permitting 
the  option  generally  up  to  Untersecunda  and  not  in  the 
three  higher  classes  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  this  ar- 
rangement is  intended  primarily  for  one-year  volunteers 
leaving  school  at  this  point,  to  whom  it  assures  a  more  prac- 
tical training,  and  partly  by  the  fact  that  the  arrangement 
of  the  alternative  courses,  including  French  and  mathematics 
as  well  as  English,  is  similar  to  the  curriculum  of  the  corre- 
sponding classes  of  the  Recdgymnasium,  so  that  those  who 
wish  to  study  further  can  easily  pass  from  Untersecunda 
of  the  Gymnasium  to  Obersecunda  of  the  Realgymnasium. 
English  is,  therefore,  not  optional  with  Greek  throughout 
the  course,  and  Greek  is  still  obligatory  at  least  in  the  three 
upper  classes. 

The  opposition  to  the  substitution  of  English  or  any  other 
subject  for  Greek  is  very  strong  among  the  conservatives. 
Their  general  attitude  here  as  elsewhere  is : 
Let  the  other  schools  have  all  the  privileges 
they  wish,  throw  open  to  all  the  study  of 
theology  and  medicine  even,  but  "  hands  off "  the  Gymnasium 
curriculum.  This  must  be  maintained  in  its  entirety,  Greek 
obligatory,  Latin  taught  from  first  year  to  last  and  not  accord- 
ing to  the  reform  plan,  ancient  history  back  to  where  it  was  for- 
merly, and,  if  anything,  more  time  for  the  classical  languages 
such  as  they  enjoyed  in  the  "  good  old  days  "  before  1892. 


452  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

But  events  in  Germany  and  elsewhere  point  to  the  hope- 
lessness of  carrying  out  such  a  program.  In  spite  of  its 
ardent  defenders  the  "  old  "  Gymnasium  is  becoming  more 
modern  year  by  year,  and,  although  it  may  never  be  wholly 
"reformed  "  according  to  the  Frankfort  pattern,  it  cannot  long 
retain  its  hard  and  fast  organization  of  a  century  or  even  of 
a  decade  ago.  Nor  can  the  classics  continue 
^°  dominate  the  curriculum  to  the  extent  that 
they  did  fifty  years  ago.  Latin,  it  is  true,  has 
received  a  considerable  increase  in  time,  and  the  Latin 
schools,  the  Realgymnasien,  have  promise  of  a  larger  place 
in  the  future.  Greek,  too,  has  been  apotheosized  as  never 
before.  It  is  declared  to  be  the  very  heart  and  life  of  a 
liberal  education,  not  only  of  supreme  cultural  and  disci- 
plinary value  in  itself,  but  a  great  aid  to  all  other  studies — 
religion,  the  mother  tongue,  Latin,  modern  languages,  his- 
tory, mathematics,  sciences  and  philosophy.1  Moreover  the 
very  fact  that  the  classicists  are  willing  to  throw  away  all 
external  props  of  exclusive  privileges  is  a  sign  of  a  deeper 
faith  in  classical  education,  and  of  a  willingness  to  let  it 
stand  strictly  on  its  intrinsic  merits.  All  of  this  leads 
Mr.  Sadler  to  remark  that  "  there  has  arisen  a  new  wave  of 
enthusiasm  on  behalf  of  the  classical  humanities."5  But  in 
part,  at  least,  it  is  the  practical  and  technical  value  of  Latin 
that  has  recently  been  recognized  and  that  accounts  for  the 
revival  of  the  Kealgymnasium,  rather  than  increased  faith  in 
its  purely  cultural  and  disciplinary  value.  This  is  true  also 
in  regard  to  Greek.  It  is  not  the  study  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage per  se  and  philology  that  is  emphasized  but  the  great 
value  and  deep  significance  of  Greek  thought,  life,  art,  litera- 
ture and  philosophy.  It  is  being  urged  more  and  more,  in 
fact,  that  most  students  can  profit  by  this  valuable  material 
more  by  means  of  translations  than  through  the  study  of  the 

1  See,  for  example,  Uhlig's :  Theses  concerning  the  preservation  and 
extension  of  the  individuality  of  the  humanistic  Gymnasium,  in  Das 
humanislische  Gymnasium,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  17ff. 

•  English  Special  Reports  on  Educational  Subjects,  Vol.  9,  p.  89. 


THE  PROGRESS  OP  SCHOOL  REFORM  453 

original  language.    So  much  for  the  "Greek  question"  in 
Germany. 

The  tendency  in  Germany  is  at  present,  as  it  has  been  for 
years,  away  from  the  scholastic  and  purely  formal  in  classical 
education,  and  perhaps  away  from  strictly  classical  education 
itself,  but  I  do  not  believe  that  it  is  away  from  truly  human- 
istic and  liberal  education.  Instead,  the  tendency  is  to  rec- 
ognize that  modern  languages  and  the  sciences  can  have  a 
truly  cultural  value  and  constitute  a  liberal  education  as 
well  as  the  old  "  humanities  "  if  they  are  properly  taught. 
And  not  the  least  benefit  of  the  recent  reforms  will  be  an 
increased  attention  to  the  subject  matter  and  methods  of 
instruction  of  the  modern  subjects  from  this  broader  point 
of  view.  With  the  abandonment  of  the  gymnasial  monopoly 
and  the  abolition  of  the  mid-course  examination  the  system 
of  privileges  is  broken  up  so  far  as  the  higher  schools  are 
concerned.  Free  competition  is  now  possible  among  all 
grades  of  schools  that  fit  for  leadership.  This  accomplish- 
ment is  the  most  significant  event  of  the  past  decade  and 
shows  conclusively  that  modern  Germany  is  keenly  alert  to 
the  demands  of  modern  life.  The  economic  situation  has 
forced  a  reconsideration  of  educational  theories  and  a  reform 
of  educational  practice,  but  amidst  all  changes  Germany  is 
true  to  her  ideals  of  humanistic  culture  and  practical  effi- 
ciency in  school  training. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A.  The  most  important  general  sources  concerning  recent  reforms  in 
German,  more  particularly  Prussian,  Higher  Schools : 

1.  Lexis,  W.,  and  others :  Die  Reform  des  hoheren  Schulwesens  in 
Preussen.    Halle.  1902.    Herein  (a)  C.  Rethwisch:   Historical  Review; 
(b)  F.  Paulsen :  The  Principle  of  Equality  of  the  three  Types  of  Higher 
Schools ;  (c)  W.  Lexis :  The  Question  of  Privileges ;  (d)  M.  Heynacher : 
The  Instruction  in  General ;  (e)  A.  Waldeck,  von  Wilamowitz,  R.  Leh- 
mann,  W.  Mangold,  F.  Neubauer,  H.  Wagner,  F.  Klein,  J.  Norrenberg, 
L.  Pallat,  H.  Wickenhagen :  The  Instruction  in  the  Various  Branches ; 
(f)  K.  Reinhardt :  The  Reform  Schools ;  (g)  H.  Halfmann :  The  Position 
of  the  Six-Class  Schools;  (h)  W.  Fries  and  A.  Tilmann:  The  Prepara- 
tion and  Position  of  Teachers ;  (i)  E.  Horn :  Bibliography ;  and  (j)  Sta- 
tistics. 

This  book,  semi-official  in  character,  gives  the  best  all-round  view  of 
the  situation. 

2.  Lexis,  W. :   Das  Unterrichtswesen  im  Deufschen  Reich,  Vol.  II. ; 
C.  Rethwisch,  R.  Lehmann,  G.  Baumer :  Die  hoheren  Lehranstalten  und 
das  Mddchenschulwesen.     Berlin,  1904. 

This  admirable  treatise  is  in  a  series  prepared  for  the  St.  Louis  Expo- 
sition. 

3.  Lexis,  W. :  A  General  View  of  the  History  and  Organization  of 
Public  Education  in  the  German  Empire.     Berlin,  1904.     Translated 
from  an  abridgment  of  the  preceding  work. 

4.  Beier,  Adolf:  Die  hdheren  Schulen  in  Preussen  und  ihre  Lehrer. 
2d  Edition,  Halle  a.S.,  1902.     A  collection  of  the  official  regulations  per- 
taining to  the  higher  schools  and  universities.     The  Same :  Erstes  Er- 
gdnzungsheft  (April,  1902 ;  Jan.,  1904). 

5.  Sadler,  M.  E. :  English  Special  Reports  on  Educational  Subjects, 
Vol.  IX.,  Education  in  Germany.     London,  1902.     Herein :  (a)  Sadler, 
M.  E. :  The  Unrest  in  Secondary  Education  in  Germany  and  elsewhere. 
The  best  study  of  its  kind  in  existence ;  (b)  Twentyman,  A.  E. :  Note  on 
Revised  Curricula  and  Programmes  of  Work,  1901. 

6.  The  Same:   Vol.  III.     London,  1898.     Herein:   (a)   Problems  in 
Prussian  Secondary  Education  for  Boys,  M.  E.  Sadler ;  (b)  The  Curric- 

455 


456  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ula  and  Programmes  of  Work  for  Higher  Schools  in  Prussia,  of  1891. 
Translated  by  W.  Q.  Lipscomb ;  (c)  Hammond,  H.  E.  O. :  The  Higher 
Schools  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden ;  (d)  Rein,  W. :  Tendencies  in  the 
Educational  Systems  of  Germany.  Translated  by  F.  H.  Dale ;  (e)  Ware, 
Fabian :  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in  Frankfort  a.M.  and 
District  with  some  account  of  the  Frankfurter  Lehrplan  of  1892 ;  (f) 
Brebner,  Mary :  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in  Germany ;  (g) 
Hausknecht,  Emil :  The  Teaching  of  Foreign  Languages.  Translated 
by  H.  W.  Atkinson ;  (h)  Ware,  Fabian :  The  Teacher  of  Modern  Lan- 
guages in  Prussian  Secondary  Schools  for  Boys. 

7.  Messer,  August :  Die  Reformbewegung  auf  dem  Gebiete  des  preus- 
iischen  Gymnasialwesens  von  1882  bis  1901.    Leipsic  and  Berlin,  1901, 
p.  173. 

8.  Paulsen,  Friedrich :  Geschichte  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts.    2d  edi- 
tion, Leipsic,  1897.     Vol.  II.,  final  chapters :  Die  Zukunft  des  gelehrten 
Unterrichts,  pp.  631-687.    A  standard  work  with  strong  leaning  to  the 
realistic  education. 

9.  Paulsen,  Friedrich :  Die  hoheren  Schulen  und  das  Universitats- 
studium  im  20.  Jahrhundert.    Brunswick,  1901,  p.  34. 

10.  Russell,  J.  E. :   German  Higher  Schools.     New  York,  1898.    3d 
edition,  1905. 

11.  Hughes,  R.  E. :  The  Making  of  Citizens.    New  York  and  London, 
1902.     Herein  Chapter  X. :  The  Secondary  School  System  of  Germany. 

12.  Bolton,  F.  E. :  The  Secondary  School  System  of  Germany.    New 
York,  1900,  p.  398. 

13.  Lentz,  Ernst :  Die  Vorzuge  des  gemeinsamen  Unterbaues  aller  ho- 
heren  Lehranstalten.    Berlin,  1901,  p.  58. 

14.  Kaemmel,  Otto :  Der  Kampf  an  das  humanistische  Gymnasium. 
Leipsic,  1901. 

15.  Muff,  Christian :  Humanistische  und  realistische  Bildung.     1901. 

16.  Rein,  W. :  Encyklopddisches  Ilandbuch  der  Padagogik.    Vols.  I.- 
VII.    Langensalza,   1895-1899.    (A  2d  edition  is  being  issued,  1905») 
Various  articles :  Gymnasium,  Realschulwesen,  Reformschulen,  etc. 

17.  Fischer,  Albert:  Das  alte  Gymnasium  und  die  neue  Zeit.    Gr. 
Lichterfelde,  1900. 

18.  Weissenfels,  Oscar :  Kernfragen  des  hdheren  Unterrichts.    II.  Vols. 
Berlin,  1901,  1903. 

19.  Kretzschmar,  J.  F. :   Das    hdhere    Schulwesen    in  Konigreiche 
.Sachsen.    Leipsic,  1903. 

20.  Joos,  August:    Die    Mittelschulen    in  Grossherzogtum    Baden. 
Karlsruhe,  1898. 

21.  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  der  hdheren  Schulen  Deutschlands.    Vol. 
XXIV.  (1903-1904).    Leipsic,  1903.    Annual  Volumes.    An  indispensa- 
ble guide  to  the  personnel  of  German  schools. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  457 

22.  Centralblatt  fur  die  gesamte  Unterriclits-Verwaltung  in  Preussen, 
with  Statistische  Ergdnzungsheften.     Annual  volumes  up  to  date.    The 
official  publication  of  the  Prussian  Department  of  Education.    All  school 
laws  and  orders  are  published  therein. 

23.  Liermann,  Otto:  Reformschulen  nach  Frankfurter  und  Altona 
System.    Erster  Teil.     Berlin,  1903. 

24.  StOtzner,  Paul.    Das  offentliche  Unterrichtswesen  Deutschlands  in 
der  Gegemcart.     Leipsic,  1901. 

25.  Dawson,  W.  H. :  German  Life  in  Town  and  Country.    New  York, 
1901.    Especially  Chap.  VI.,  Public  Education,  pp.  122-142. 

26.  Ware,  Fabian :  Educational  Foundations  of  Trade  and  Industry. 
New  York,  1901.    Chap.  IV.,  The  Foundations  laid  by  German  Govern- 
ment. 

27.  Winch,  W.   H.:  Notes  on  German  Schools.    New  York,  1904. 
(Chiefly  Methods  in  Elementary  and  Realschulen.) 

28.  Schmid,  K.  A. :    Geschichte  dcr  Erziehung.     Vol.  V.  (3  parts). 
Stuttgart,  1901-1902.     (a)  Part  I.  (a')   Bender:    Geschichte  des  Gelehr- 
tenschuhcesens    in    Deutschland    seit    der  Reformation;  (b')  Schmid, 
Georg :  Das  "  zeitgemasse  und  nationals  "  Gymnasium  ;  (b)  Part  II.  (a') 
Hoffmann,  R. :  Geschichte  des  Realschulwesens  in  Deutschland,  pp.  1- 
106 ;  (b')  Wychgram,  J. :  Geschichte  des  hoheren  Madchenschulwesens  in 
Deutschland,  pp.  228-284;  (c')  Schmid,  G. :   Nachtrag  zur  Geschichte 
der  preussischen  Gymnasien  und  Realgymnasien,  pp.  310-316. 

B.  Magazine  Articles : 

1.  Monatschrift  fur  hohere  Schulen.     Vols.  I.-IV.,  1902-1905.    (a) 
Reinhardt,  K. :  Der  Plan  des  Reformgymnasiums.    Vol.  I.,  p.  485 ;  (b) 
Begemann,  H. :  Der  Ersatzunterricht  fur  Griechisch  in  den  Gymnasien. 
Vol.  II.,  p.  606 ;  (c)  Quossek,  K. :  Die  Oberrealschule  und  das  Universi- 
tatsstudium.    Vol.  II.,  p.  377;   (d)   Rust,  W. :  Die  Oberrealschule  als 
humanistische   Bildungsanstalt.     Vol.    II.,   p.  619;   (e)   Matthias,  A.: 
Dbersicht  uber  die  am  1.  April  1904  ^m  Deutschen  Reich  bestehenden 
Reformschulen.    Vol.  III.,  p.  281 ;  (f)  Summary  of  privileges  in  the  dif- 
ferent German  States  (1904).    Vol.  III.,  p.  46 ;  (g)  Paulsen,  F. :  Was 
kann  geschehen,  um  den  Gymnasialstudien  auf  der  oberen  Stufe  eine 
freiere  Gestalt  zu  geben.     IV.,  p.  65 ;  (h)  Tilmann,  A. :   Statistics  con- 
cerning the  leaving-certificates  of  students  in   Prussian   Universities. 
Vols.  II.,  III.,  IV. ;    (i)  Reinhardt,  K. :    Die  Reformschulen  im  preus- 
sischen Abgeordnetenhause.    Vol.  IV.,  229,  (May,  1905). 

2.  Das  humanistische  Gymnasium,    (a)  Fritze,  Dr. :  Das  sogenannte 
Reformgymnasium.    Vol.  X.,  p.  130;  (b)  Hornemann:  Thesen  uber  das 
Wesen  und  die  Organization  des  Gymnasiums  in  unserer  Zeit.    Vol.  Xt> 
154;  (c)  Jiiger,  O.:  Politik  und  Schule.     Vol.  X.,  7;  (d)  Seiliger,  Jfiger: 
Discussions  of  privileges  and   reform  schools.    Vol.  XL,  106;  (e)  Uh- 
lig,  G. :  Die  Berliner  Schulkonferenz  von  6-8.  Juni.    Vol.  XL,  134,  and 


458  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

Vol.  XII.,  110;  (f)  Jager,  0.:  Das  Reformgymnasium.  Vol.  XI.,  1;  (g) 
J&ger,  0. :  Ereignisse  des  Jahres  1900  auf  dem  Gebiet  des  hoheren  Schul- 
wesens.  Vol.  XII.,  159 ;  (h)  Der  Erlass  des  Kaisers  zur  Schulreform 
mit  Bemerkungen  von  G.  Uhlig.  Vol.  XII.,  88;  (i)  Jager  und  Uhlig: 
Die  neuen  preussischen  Lehrpldne  und  Lehraufgaben.  Vol.  XII.,  237, 
and  Vol.  XIII.,  1,  176 ;  (j)  Aly,  Friedrich :  Die  gegenwartige  Lage  des 
Gymnasiums.  Vol.  XIV.,  91 ;  (k)  Uhlig,  G. :  Thesen  uber  Wahrung  und 
Ausgestaltung  der  Eigenart  des  humanistischen  Gymnasiums.  Vol. 
XV.,  17;  (1)  Cauer,  P.,  and  others:  Die  Eigenart  der  verschiedenen 
hdheren  Schulen.  Vol.  XV.,  49 ;  (m)  Cauer,  P. :  fiber  den  gegenwartigen 
Stand  der  Schulpolitischen  Bewegung  (especially  Reformgymnasium). 
Vol.  XV.,  154 ;  (n)  Miiller,  H.  F. :  Von  der  "  Eigenart "  des  Gymnasiums 
und  dem  englischen  Ersatzunterricht  fur  das  Griechische.  Vol.  XV., 
162. 

3.  Padagogisches  Archiv.     (a)  Concerning  the  "  Abschlusspriifung." 
Vol.  XL.,  pp.  131,  639,  Vol.  XLL,  pp.  23,  385 ;  Vol.  XLVIL,  p.  163 ;   (b) 
Concerning  questions  of  privileges.    Vol.  XLI.,  pp.  193,  208,  402,  Vol. 
XLII.,  pp.  232,  476,  528,  593,  648,  Vol.  XLIII.,  p.  366,  Vol.  XLIV,  p.  581, 
Vol.  XLVL,  pp.  46,  158.    (Other  articles  in  Das  humanistische  Gymna- 
sium.   Vol.  XI.,  pp.  165,  200,  Vol.  XII.,  pp.  6, 194,  209,  Vol.  XIII,  160, 
161) ;  (c)  Wirth,  Ph. :  Zur  Schulreform.    Vol.  XLII.  553 ;  (d)  Schmed- 
ing,  Fr. :  Der  Kaiserliche  Erlass  uber  die  Schulreform  vom  26.  Nov. 
1900.      Vol.   XLIII.,  161;    (e)    Schmeding:    Die    Verhandlungen  uber 
Fragen  des  hdheren  Unterrichts  in  Berlin  von  6-8.  Juni  1900.    Vol. 
XLIII.,  714,  777,  Vol.  XLII.,  408 ;  (f)  Eichhoff,  R. :  Die  Schulreform  in 
Berlin.    Vol.  XLV.,  474,  44,  108;   (g)  Steinbart,  Q.,  and  Schmeding : 
Der  Abschluss  der  Schulreform  in  Preussen.    Vol.  XLV.,  328,  355 ;  (h) 
Gutersohn,  J. :  fiber  Reformschulen.    Vol.  XLVL,  90 ;  (i)  Paulsen,  F. : 
Die  hdheren  Schulen  Deutschlands  und  ihr  Lehrerstand  in  ihrem  Ver- 
haltnis  zum  Stoat  und  zur  geistlichen  Kultur.     Vol.  XLVL,  385 ;  (j) 
Eichhoff,  R. :   Parlamentsverhandlungen  uber  das  hohere  Schulwesen 
(1904).    Vol.  XLVL,  472;  (k)  Herold,  R. :  Neue  Bahnen  im  Unterricht. 
VoL  XLVIL,  276. 

4.  Educational  Review,  New  York :  (a)  Viereck,  L. :  Reform  of  Sec- 
ondary Education  in  Germany.    Vol.  XX.,  170 ;  (b)  Wright,  C.  E. :  The 
Abolition  of  Compulsory  Greek.    Vol.  XXIV.,  48;  (c)  Butler,  N.  M.: 
Changes  in  Secondary  Schools  of  Germany.    Vol.  XXIII.,  103. 

5.  Education,  Boston :  Wright,  C.  E. :  The  New  Curricula  in  Prussia. 
Vol.  XXIII,  1. 

6.  The  School  Review,  Chicago:  (a)  Thiergen,  Oscar:  The  Struggle 
for  Equality  of  Rights  between  the  German  Gymnasium  and  the  Real- 
gymnasium.     Vol.  X.,  243 ;  (b)  Sanders,  Henry  A. :  Recent  Changes  in 
the  Curriculum  of  the  Prussian  Gymnasium.    Vol.  X.,  456 ;  (c)  Good- 
win, E.  J. :  Results  in  the  Prussian  Gymnasium.    Vol.  VII.,  541. 


APPENDICES 


A.  THE  ROYAL  DECREE  OF  NOVEMBER  26,  1900. 

B.  CURRICULA  OP  PRUSSIAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  SINCE  1901. 

C.  THE  PRIVILEGED  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OF  GERMANY  IN  1903- 

1904. 

D.  PRIVILEGES  ATTACHING  TO  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  IN 

1904. 

E.  PRIVILEGES  IN  INDIVIDUAL  GERMAN  STATES. 

F.  SALARIES  OF  TEACHERS  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OF  GER- 

MANY LN  1904. 

G.  PENSIONS  OF  TEACHERS  IN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OF  GERMANY. 
H.  EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  GENERAL  PENSION  LAWS  OF  PRUSSIA. 

459 


APPENDIX  A 

The  Royal  Decree  of  November  26,  1900. 

' '  Following  the  report  of  November  20th  of  this  year,  it  is  my 
pleasure  that  the  reform  of  the  higher  schools  initiated  by  me  in 
1890,  be  carried  further  in  accordance  with  the  following  prin- 
ciples: 

"1.  With  reference  to  the  question  of  privileges  the  principle 
must  be  that  the  Gymnasium,  the  Realgymnasium  and  the  Ober- 
realschule  are  to  be  considered  of  equal  value  in  the  training  for 
general  culture,  and  require  supplementing  only  in  so  far  as,  for 
certain  lines  of  study  and  professional  pursuits,  special  prepara- 
tory studies  are  necessary  which  do  not  enter, — or  at  least  not  to 
the  same  extent,  — into  the  curriculum  of  each  institution.  Conse- 
quently provision  is  to  be  made  for  the  extension  of  the  privileges 
of  the  realistic  institutions.  In  this  there  is  indicated  at  the  same 
time  the  best  method  of  raising  the  repute  and  increasing  the  at- 
tendance at  these  schools  and  of  thus  affecting  a  wider  spread  of 
realistic  learning. 

"2.  In  thus  acknowledging  the  equality  of  the  three  types  of 
schools  it  will  be  possible  more  thoroughly  to  strengthen  the 
peculiar  nature  of  each.  In  view  of  this  I  shall  offer  no  objection 
to  a  suitable  strengthening  of  Latin  in  the  curriculum  of  the  Qym- 
nasien  and  Realgymnasien.  But  I  consider  it  especially  impor- 
tant, in  view  of  the  great  significance  which  the  knowledge  of 
English  has  attained,  that  this  language  receive  increased  atten- 
tion at  the  Gymnasium.  Therefore,  side  by  side  with  Greek, 
English  is  everywhere  to  be  an  alternative  subject  up  to  Unter- 
secunda,  and,  moreover,  in  the  upper  three  classes  of  the  Gym- 
nasium where  local  conditions  render  it  desirable,  English  is  to 
replace  French  as  the  required  subject,  while  the  latter  language 
is  to  be  retained  as  optional.  It  also  appears  to  be  desirable  that 
in  the  curriculm  of  the  Oberrealschule,  which  admits  of  an  exten- 
sion, geography  should  receive  more  care  and  attention. 

"3.  Since  1892  undeniable  progress  has  been  made  in  the  econ- 

461 


462  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

ouiy  of  instruction  in  various  branches.  More  must  still  be  ac- 
complished. Mindful  of  the  admonition:  "  Multum  nonmulta," 
the  directors  will  have  to  pay  increased  attention  that  equally 
high  attainments  are  not  demanded  in  all  subjects,  but  that  the 
most  important  among  them,  according  to  the  nature  of  each  in- 
stitution, are  emphasized  and  extended. 

"In  the  teaching  of  Greek  it  is  especially  important  to  do  away 
with  useless  grammatical  details,  and  chiefly  to  keep  in  mind  that, 
in  addition  to  the  aesthetic  apprehension,  a  consideration  of  the 
relations  between  ancient  and  modern  culture  should  receive  its 
proper  share  of  attention. 

"In  modern  languages  special  efforts  must  be  made  to  secure 
skill  in  speaking  the  foreign  idiom  and  a  ready  comprehension  of 
the  most  popular  authors. 

"In  history  two  deficiencies  continue  to  make  themselves  felt — 
the  neglect  of  important  portions  of  ancient  history  and  the  too 
scanty  consideration  of  German  history  of  the  nineteenth  century 
with  all  its  wealth  of  stirring  recollections  and  achievements  for 
our  fatherland. 

"In  geography,  in  the  Gymnasium  as  well  as  in  the  Realgym- 
nasium,  it  is  to  be  desired  that  the  instruction  be  placed  in  the 
hands  of  special  teachers. 

"In  the  teaching  of  natural  science  more  time  must  be  devoted 
to  observation  and  experimental  work,  and  frequent  excursions 
must  enliven  the  instruction;  in  chemistry  and  physics,  the  ap- 
plied and  technical  side  of  the  subject  must  not  be  neglected. 

"  In  drawing  (where,  moreover,  the  ability  to  reproduce  the  re- 
sults of  observations  in  rapid  sketches  deserves  consideration) 
efforts  are  to  be  made  at  the  Gymnasien  to  encourage  those  pupils 
who  intend  to  devote  themselves  to  the  study  of  technology,  nat- 
ural science,  mathematics,  or  medicine,  to  take  proper  advantage 
of  the  optional  instruction  offered  in  this  subject. 

"Besides  the  physical  exercises  which  are  to  be  made  use  of 
more  extensively,  greater  attention  must  be  paid  in  adjusting  the 
time-tables,  to  considerations  of  health,  more  especially  by  prop- 
erly placing  and  increasing  the  length  of  the  pauses  between  les- 
sons, which  have  hitherto  been  too  short. 

"4.  Since  the  Abschussprilfung  has  not  fulfilled  the  expecta- 
tions formed  of  it  when  it  was  introduced,  and  in  particular  has 
augmented  instead  of  diminished  the  rush  of  students  to  the  uni- 
versities, it  ie  to  be  abolished  as  soon  as  possible. 


APPENDIX  A  463 

"5.  The  establishment  of  schools  with  the  Altona  and  the 
Frankfort  curricula  has  heretofore  justified  itself,  on  the  whole, 
for  those  places  where  it  has  been  tried.  Since  this  arrangement 
provides  a  common  elementary  course  identical  with  that  of  the 
Realschulen,  it  likewise  affords  no  inconsiderable  social  advan- 
tages. I  desire,  therefore,  not  only  that  the  experiment  be  con- 
tinued in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  most  effective,  but  also  that  it 
be  tested  more  widely  where  conditions  make  it  advisable. 

' '  I  cherish  the  hope  that  the  measures  thus  to  be  introduced, 
for  the  carrying  out  of  which  I  count  upon  the  constant  loyalty 
and  intelligent  devotion  of  the  teachers,  will  redound  to  the 
benefit  of  our  higher  schools  and  contribute  their  share  toward 
lessening  the  opposition  between  the  representatives  of  the  clas- 
sical and  the  modern  tendencies  and  thus  bring  about  a  lasting 
reconciliation. 

"  Given  at  Kiel,  the  26th  of  November,  1903. 
"On  board  H.  M.  S.  Kaiser  Wilhelm  II. 
"WilhelmR." 

To  the  Minister  for  Religious,  Educational  and  Medicinal  Affairs. 


APPENDIX  B 

CURRICULA  OF  PRUSSIAN   HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OP  1901 
(a)  Curriculum  of  Gymnasien. 


3 

Compared  with 

p—  i 

• 

> 

p"J 

>-* 

— 

^ 

CQ 

J 

o 

1892. 

> 

> 

" 

P 

1=1 

a 

h-  ( 

H 

Religion  

3 

2 

8 

8 

8 

2 

O 

,j 

2 

19 

Unchanged. 

German  and  His- 
torical Tales.  .  . 

8 

8 

8 

3 

3 

3 

3 

26 

Unchanged. 

Latin  

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

7 

7' 

71 

71 

68 

Six  hours  add- 

ed, one  weekly 

[ 

1 

in  IV  upward, 

I 

except  HB. 

Greek  

6 

ft 

6 

C, 

ej 

6J 

36 

In  upper  classes 

Greek  may  get 

the  extra  time. 

French 

4 

8 

8 

3 

3 

3 

3 

20 

One  hour  less  in 

IIlA  and    1  1  1  it. 

1  hour  more  in 

UA,  IB,  IA. 

History  

8 

8 

8 

2  • 

3' 

3 

171 

History    loses 

in    VI    and    V 
what    geogra- 

Geography   
Mathematics  — 

2 

4 

2 
4 

8 

4 

1 
8 

1 
8 

4 

•4< 

'4 

'4 

9j 
84 

phy  gains. 
Unchanged,  ex- 

cept that  per- 

mission to  al- 

ter distribution 

in     lln    up    is 

Natural  Sciences 

2 

2 

8 

8 

8 

2. 

2 

2. 

2J 

18 

new. 

Writing 

2 

2 

4 

Unchanged. 

Drawing  

2 

8 

8 

8 

8 

Unchanged. 

Totals  

25 

25 

•M 

30 

80 

30 

30 

30 

30 

259 

Total  increased 

by  7  hours. 

Brackets  indicate  that  the  time  for  subjects  enclosed  may  be  redistributed  if 
desired. 


To  the  above  is  added  : 

(a)  As  obligatory,  3  hours  gymnastics  throughout  all  classes, 
and  2  hours  singing  in  VI  and  V.     Release  in  individual  cases  is 

464 


APPENDIX  B 


465 


allowed  only  on  grounds  of  a  physician's  certificate  and  as  a  rule 
only  for  half  a  year.  Students  with  talent  for  singing  are  re- 
quired to  take  part  in  chorus  singing  in  IV  upward ; 

(b)  As  optional,  2  hours  drawing  in  I  IB  upward  ;  2  hours  Eng- 
lish and  2  hours  Hebrew  in  HA  upward.  Enrollment  for  elec- 
tives  must  be  for  at  least  one  half  year. 

For  pupils  in  IV  and  III  with  poor  handwriting,  special  in- 
struction in  writing  is  to  be  provided. 

A  change  from  this  schedule  is  allowed  as  follows:  In  the  three 
higher  classes,  in  place  of  the  required  instruction  in  French, 
similar  instruction  3  hours  per  week  in  English  may  be  given, 
while  French  becomes  an  optional  study  with  2  hours  weekly. 

In  place  of  the  required  study  of  Greek  (6  hours  weekly)  in  Ills, 
IIlA  and  HB,  there  may  be  regularly  assigned  3  hours  English; 
the  remaining  time,  as  a  rule,  to  be  distributed  between  French 
and  mathematics;  in  Ills  and  IIlA  2  hours  French,  1  hour  math- 
ematics; in  I  IB  1  hour  French,  2  hours  mathematics  and  natural 
science. 


(b)  Curriculum  of  Realgymnasien. 


> 

> 

£» 

4 

B 

| 

0) 

a 

£ 

•< 

1 

Compared  with 
1892. 

Religion   

3 

2 

2 

« 

ft 

2 

2 

2 

2 

19 

German  and  His- 
torical Tales.  .  . 
Latin  

«; 

n* 

8 

8 

7 

3 
6 

8 
6 

3 
4 

3 
4 

3 

4 

3 

4 

28 
49 

Unchanged. 

French   

6 

4 

4 

4 

4) 

4) 

4) 

29 

ly     added    in 
Ills  upward. 

English        

ft 

8 

3 

! 

! 

i 

18 

1  1  IB  and  I  MA. 

History  

ft 

ft 

ft 

21 

31 

31 

8 

171 

Geography  
Mathematics  
Natural  Sciences 

Writing  

2 
4 

a 

8 

2 
4 
2 

2 

8 

4 
8 

8 
5 
8 

8 
6 
8 

,) 

5 
4 

1 

5 
5 

..1 

6 
6 

'5 
5. 

11  J 
42 
29 

4 

in  VI  and  V 
what   geogra- 
phy gains. 
Unchanged. 
One  hour  less  in 

IlB. 

Drawing  

2 

9 

8 

ft 

2 

2 

2 

2 

16 

Totals  

86 

26 

•»t 

BO 

•in 

30 

31 

31 

31 

262 

added  to  total. 

Optional :    From  IIIx  upward  two  hours  weekly  of  mechanical  drawing. 
For  gymnastics,  singing,  writing  see  under  Gymnatien. 


466 


GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 


(c)    Curriculum  of  Oberrealschulen. 


£ 

> 

g 

£ 

1 

fl 

d 

a 

t—  i 

•J 

1 
| 

Compared    with 
1892. 

Religion  

3 

2 

ti 

g 

ft 

2 

2 

2 

2 

19 

Unchanged. 

German  and  His- 
torical Tales  .  . 

French  

«• 

6 

5H 

6 

4 

(| 

8 
8 

8 

6 

3 

51 

4 

41 

4 

41 

4 
41 

34 
47 

Unchanged. 

Freedom    allow- 
ed to  redistrib- 

English  

5 

4 

4 

J 

J 

J 

25 

tween     French 
and  English  in 
HB  up 

History  

8 

'  7 

9 

2 

3 

3 

3 

18 

History     loses 
what     Geogra- 
phy gains  in  VI 
and  V 

Geography  
Mathematics  — 
Natural  Sciences 

2 
5 
2 

2 

2 
5 
2 
2 

8 
fi 
2 
9 

2 
8 
8 

8 
5 
4 

1 
5 
6 

1 
5 
6 

1 
5 
6 

1 
5 
6 

14 
47 
36 
6 

History   gains  1 
hour  in  IV  ;  Ge- 
ography loses  1 
hour  in  HB  and 
gains  1  in  HA  up. 
Unchanged. 
Unchanged. 
Unchanged. 

Freehand  Draw- 
ine  .. 

2 

8 

g 

a 

2 

? 

? 

a 

16 

Unchanged. 

Totals  

25 

25 

•*t 

HO 

HO 

30 

31 

31 

31 

96? 

ed  to  total. 

Optional:    Mechanical  Drawing  HLi  upwards  2  hours  weekly. 
For  gymnastics,  singing,  writing  see  under  Gymnasien. 

(d)  The  curricula  of  the  first  six  years  of  the  Gymnasium,  Real- 
gymnasium  and  Oberrealschule  constitute,  respectively,  the  cur- 
ricula of  the  Progymnasium,  the  Realprogymnasium  and  the 
Realschule. 

(e)  Altona  Curricula  of  Realgymnasien  and  Realschulen. 


Common 
Elem.  Course. 

Realschule. 

Realgymnasium. 

$ 

t> 

> 

B 

a 

>-i 

_!_ 

13 
22 

1 

^ 

a 

i3 

3 

•* 

1 

Religion 

3 

»• 

2 

n< 

2 
4 

2 
3 

2 
3 

2 
3 

2 
2 

6 
4 
3 
2 
2 
5 
2 

2 

2 

6 
4 
3 
2 
1 
4 
4 

2 
3 

6 
3 
3 
2 
1 
5 
4 

2 

3 

« 
3 
3 
3 

'4 
5 

2 
3 

6 
3 
3 
3 

-5 
4 

2 
3 

6 
3 
3 
3 

'6 
4 

19 
29 

86 
37 
22 
17 
10 
44 
29 
4 
16 

263 

German  and  His- 
torical Tales.  .  . 
Latin  

French  

6 

6 

5 
4 
2 
2 
6 
2 

'2 

29 

6 
5 
2 
2 
6 
2 

-2 

5 
4 
2 
2 
6 
4 

-2 

5 
6 
2 
1 
6 
6 

'« 

33 
18 
8 
11 
34 
17 
4 
10 

English  

History  

Geography  
Mathematics  
Natural  Sciences 
Writing  

2 
6 
2 
2 

2 
5 
2 
2 
2 

Drawing  

2 
30 

2 
30 

2 

31 

2 
31 

2 

2 

Totals.  

25 

25 

30 

80 

31 

110 

31 

31 

APPENDIX  B 


1 


u 

I 


S 


& 


1 


8    3    8 


r;      «.-      o 


co     10     10 


co     10      •»• 


•an 


•WVOS 


•TI 


•ai 


•TH 


•an 


°*         S         S 
v-^         co         BO 


iS0" 
iv     v4 


oo         t~     <x> 


coooot 


«*       TO       CJ 


co         oooo 


e«coot 


otcoc* 


•gTTT 


•AI 


'A 


•IA 


•2   -3 


•«     •«     et 


co^oi 


<o     10     co 


et     10     et     et     et 


8 


S3 


Is 


jg  bO 

.2  "3) 

If 

M  a 
gB 

no 


NOTE:— Tables  (a),  (&),  and  (c)  are  compiled  from  Beier:  Die 
htfheren  Schulen  in  Preussen,  and  from  English  Special  Reports, 
Vol.  IX.  Tables  (e)  and  (/)  are  taken  from  article  by  K.  Rein- 
hardt  in  Lexis  :  Die  Reform  des  Titiheren  Schulwesens  in  Preus- 
sen, pp.  340,  341. 


APPENDIX   C 


THE    PRIVILEGED    HIGHER    SCHOOLS    OF    GERMANY 

IN    1903-1904. 

Statistisches  Jahrbuch  der  Hdheren  Schulen,  1093-1904,  p.  244. 


A 
a 

i 

1 
I 

A- 
b 

1 

1 
& 

"5 

£ 

Oberrealschulen.  o  > 

Progymnasien.  p  W 

Realprogymna-  M 
sien. 

Realschulen.  c  a 

Progymnasien.  P  O 

Realprogymna-  _ 
sien. 

Realschulen.  o  O 

Schullehrersemi- 
anarien. 

Other  public  in-  _ 
stitutions. 

Private  schools. 

Schools  in  foreign 
lands. 

1    Prussia  

0% 

76 

ar 

5Q 

27 

135 

115 

1fi 

19 

\\ 

5 

87 

ry) 

12 

7 

18 

1* 

W 

20 

5 

A 

4.  WUrtemberg  

18 

8 

8 

1 

5 

8 

t 

6 

6 

9 

5   Baden  

11 

4 

8 

3 

•  8 

1 

15 

4 

1 

6.  Hesse  

11 

8 

4 

8 

18 

3 

1 

1 

7.  Mechlenburg-Schwe- 
rin  

fi 

1 

3 

4 

1 

8   Saxe-  Weimar 

S 

9 

2 

2 

9 

9.  Mecklenburg-Strelitz 

8 

1 

1 

10   Oldenburg 

5 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1  1  .  Brunswick  

« 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

4 

12   Saxe-Meiningen. 

9 

9 

9 

1 

1 

9 

1 

1 

1 

1 

14.  Saxe-Coburg-Qotha.  . 
15.  Anhalt  

2 

4 

1 
9, 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

2 
1 

'i 

16.  Schwarzburg-Sonder- 

<> 

•> 

1 

1 

17.  Schwarzburg  -  Rudol- 
stadt 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

18   Waldeck 

1 

1 

1 

1 

19.  Reuss,  a.  L  

1 

1 

1 

20   Reuss  j  L 

9: 

1 

1 

i 

21.  Schaumburg-Lippe  .  . 
22.  Lippe  Detmold 

1 
9 

1 

1 

"i 

1 
1 

23.  Lttbeck  

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

24.  Bremen  

9 

1 

1 

1 

8 

1 

25.  Hamburg  

9 

1 

1 

i 

*• 

1 

n 

17 

•\ 

fl 

11 

5 

1 

27.  Foreign 

2 

Total  

466 

19? 

»•>» 

K 

14 

87 

08 

34 

976 

}m 

33 

56 

2 

Grand  total  — 

, 

378. 

Schools  under  Aa,  Ab,  and  Ac  have  a  nine-year  curriculum:  the  others  are 
normally  schools  with  a  six-year  curriculum.  The  privilege  of  one  year  military 
service  is  granted  to  all  who  complete  successfully  the  work  of  the  first  six  classes 
in  schools  listed  under  A  and  B.  A  leaving  examination  is  required  of  pupils  who 
graduate  from  the  sixth  year  of  all  schools  listed  under  Ca  to  Ce. 

408 


APPENDIX   D 

PRIVILEGES  ATTACHING  TO   PRUSSIAN   HIGHER 
SCHOOLS   IN   1904 

(A)  Civil  Service. 

The  completion  of  the  work  of  the  different  grades  of  the  higher 
schools  indicated  below,  admits  to  the  various  university  and 
technical  courses  and  state  examinations  for  the  following  pro- 
fessions : 


• 

Gymna- 
sium. 

Real- 
gymna- 
sium. 

Oher- 
real- 
schule. 

1.  Theology.                       

IA 

2.  Law  and  Political  Science  

IA 

IA 

IA 

IA 

IA 

4.  Philosophy  : 
(u)  Ancient   Philology    and    History  ;    Teachers' 
Certificate          ...                                      . 

IA 

IA 

IA 

(6)  Modern  Languages  :  Teachers1  Certificate.   .. 
(c)  Mathematics  and  Natural  Science;  Teachers' 
Certillcate.  .          

IA 
IA 

IA 
IA 

IA 
IA 

5.  Architecture  and  Mechanical  Engineering  .... 

IA 

IA 

IA 

6.  Forestry            ...                ....         ....         

IA» 

IA1 

IA1 

7.  Mining  Engineering                 ..         

IA 

IA 

IA 

8.  Higher  Post,  Telegraph  Service  

IA 

IA 

IA 

9.  Admission  to  Academic  Institute  for  Church  Music, 
Berlin                              

IA 

IA 

IA 

10.  Veterinary  Medicine          

IA 

IA 

IA 

11.  Kood  Chemist             

IA 

IA 

IA 

12.  Teacher  of  Agriculture  in  Agricultural  Schools  ... 
13.  Royal  and  University  Library  Service  

lA 

IA 

IA 

14.  State  Archive  Service  .                 

IA 

15.  Suj>ernumerary  in  Indirect  Revenue  Service  
16.  Surveying                         .  .                               

IB 
HA 

IB 
HA 

IB 
II* 

17.  Dentistry         

IU 

HA 

HA" 

18.  Imperial  B'\nk  Service          .     ... 

HA 

HA 

HA 

19.  Immatriculation  for  four  Semesters  in  Philosoph- 

IlB 

IlB 

IlB 

20.  Admission  as  "  Hosnitant  "  (Special  Students)  in 
Technical  High  Schools  and  Mining  Academies. 
21.  Admission  to  Agricultural  Schools  at  Berlin  and 
Poppelsdorf                               

IlB 
IlB 

IlB 
IlB 

IlB 

HB 

22.  Admission  to  Academic  High  Schools  for  Plastic 
Arts,  Berlin  
23.  Teachers  of  Drawing  in  Higher  Schools  
24.  Admission  to  Academic  High  School  for  Music, 
Berlin  

111! 
II'I 

IlB 

IlB 
IlB 

III! 

Hu 

IlB 

III! 

25.  Teacher  of  Gymnastics  

IlB 

HB 

IlB 

26.  Civil  Supernumerary  in  Department  of  Justice. 
Provincial  Service  and  State  Railway  Service.  .  . 
27.  Apothecary  Apprenticeship  

IlB 

IlB 

IlB 
IlB 

HB 

IlB3 

28.  Admission  to  HorticulturaFlnstitute  at  Potsdam.  . 
29.  Assistant  in  Subaltern  Post  and  Telegraph  Service 

IlB 
HlA 

IlB 
HlA 

IlB* 
HlA 

1  Work  in  mathematics  must  be  "  unconditionally  satisfactory." 

*  An  examination  in  Latin  is  required  of  O&erreafsc/iuf-graduates. 

*  An  examination  in  Latin  is  required  of  Real-  and  O6erreot»cAu/-graduates. 

*  Sufficient  knowledge  of  Latin  to  enter  IIIii  of  a  Gymnasium  is  required. 

469 


470 


GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 


(B)  Military  Service. 


Gymna- 
sium. 

Real- 
gymna- 
sium. 

Ober- 
real- 
schule. 

30.  Exemption  from  Ensign's  Examination  

IA 

IA 

IA 

31.  Exemption  from  Midshipman's  Examination.  .  ... 
32.  Admission  to  Ensign's  Examination  

IA 

IlA 

IA 

IlA 

IA1 

HA 

33.  Admission  to  Midshipman's  Examination  

IlA" 

IlAa 

HA» 

34.  Paymaster  Service  in  Navy  

IB3 

IB1 

IBS 

35.  Marine  Superintendency  Service  

IB 

IB 

IB 

36.  Supervision  of  Imperial  Wharves  

IB 

IB 

IB 

37.  Ship-Building  and  Naval-Engineering  >,  

IA 

IA 

IA 

38.  Marine  Engineer  Service  

IlB 

IlB 

llii 

39.  Exemption  from  One  Year  of  Service  in  Army  .  .  . 

III! 

IlB 

IlB 

1  "  Good  "  in  English  and  French  required  of  OberreaZsc/iwi-graduateS. 

*  "  Good "  in  English  required  of  all  and  "  good "  also  in  French  for  Oberreal- 
schul-gr&du&tes. 

•  In  case  of  necessity  HA  is  sufficient. 

NOTE: — The  following  are  the  official  regulations  with  regard 
to  the  study  of  law  and  political  science  : 

"1.  The  most  suitable  institution  for  the  preparation  for  the 
legal  profession  is  the  humanistic  Gymnasium. 

"2.  In  addition  to  those  possessing  a  leaving-certificate  of  a 
German  humanistic  Gymnasium,  such  other  students  will  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  study  of  law  as  have  obtained  a  leaving-certificate 
of  a  German  Realgymnasium  or  a  Prussian  Oberrealschule. 

"3.  It  is  left  to  the  individual  responsibility  of  the  students  of 
the  last  two  categories,  as  well  as  to  gymnasial  graduates  whose 
mark  in  Latin  was  not  at  least  '  sufficient ',  to  obtain  elsewhere 
the  necessary  linguistic  and  other  preparation  for  a  thorough 
understanding  of  the  sources  of  Roman  Law. 

"  4.  Provision  is  to  be  made  in  the  regulation  of  the  study  of 
law  and  of  the  first  juridical  examination  that  the  students  re- 
ferred to  under  3  be  tested  for  the  preparatory  studies  mentioned 
above." 


APPENDIX   E 

NOTE  :— All  States  admit  all  nine-class  school  graduates  to  Ship-building  and 
Marine  Architecture  and  Veterinary  Surgery,  and  exempt  them  from  Ensign  s  and 
Midshipman's  examinations. 


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studies  and 
schule.  Me 
Schwartzbu 


1  Like  Prussia  are  Anhalt,  Schwartzburg-Sonderhausen,  Waldeck,  and  Alsace- 
Lorraine. 

1  Like  Mecklenberg-Schwerin  are  Mecklenberg-Strelitz,  Saxe-Meiningen  and 
Saxe-Altenburg. 

'  Like  Oldenburg  is  Brunswick. 

4  Like  Lippe  are  Reuss.  Elder  and  Younger  Line,  and  Schaumberg-Lippe. 

•  Like  Hamburg  are  LUbeck  and  Bremen. 

471 


APPENDIX  F 

SALARIES  OF  TEACHERS   IN    THE    HIGHER  SCHOOLS 
OF  GERMANY   IN   1904.  » 

PRUSSIA:  Arranged  and  condensed  from  the  budget  of  May  4, 
1892,  and  amendments  down  to  1904. 

1.  Salaries  of  directors  of  nine-year  schools: 

(a)  In  Berlin,  6,000-7,200  marks. 

(b)  In  cities  of  the  first-class,  or  with  more  than  50,000 
population,  5,100-7,200  M. 

(c)  In  all  other  places,  4,800-6,900  M. 

Salaries  in  (a)  increase  by  400  M.  every  three  years;  in  (b) 
and  (c)  by  500  M.  after  three  years,  and  then  by  400  M. 
every  three  years. 

2.  Salaries  of  principals  of  schools  with  less  than  nine  classes: 

In  (a)  and  (b)  as  above,  4,800-6,300  M. 
(c)  In  all  other  places,  4,500-6,000  M. 

The  increase  of  300  M.  comes  after  3,  6,  9,  12  and  15  years 
of  service. 

3.  Salaries  of  definitely  appointed  teachers  (Oberlehrer),  2,700- 
5,100  M.     A  special  allowance  of  300  M.  is  granted  to  certain 
teachers  of  the  upper  classes  after  9, 12  and  15  years  of  service, 
making  the  maximum  6,000  M.     The  regular  increase,  includ- 
ing the  special  allowance  above,  is  500  M.  after  three  years, 
400  M.  after  six  years,  600  M.  after  nine,  twelve  and  fifteen 
years,  and  300  M.  after  eighteen  and  twenty-one  years  of  ser- 
vice, respectively. 

Heads  of  institutions  have  also  either  free  house-rent  or,  in 
lieu  thereof,  receive  an  allowance  of  1,500  M.  in  Berlin,  and  700- 
1,000  M.  in  other  places.  Definitely  appointed  teachers  also  re- 
ceive an  allowance  for  house-rent  of  900  M.  in  Berlin  and  420- 
660  M.  in  other  places. 

1  See  Lexis:  Das  Unterrichlswesen  im  Deutschen  Reich,  II.,  pp.  222-223. 

472 


Teachers  of  drawing  receive  1,800-3,800  M.  ;  the  maximum  is 
reached  after  twenty-seven  years  of  service  in  periods  of  three 
years  each. 

Other  technical  teachers  in  higher  schools  and  teachers  in  ele- 
mentary and  preparatory  schools  receive  in  Berlin  1,800-3,600  M. ; 
in  cities  of  the  first  class,  1,500-3,400  M. ;  in  all  other  places, 
1,500-3,200  M.,  the  maximum  being  reached  after  twenty-seven 
years  of  service.  They  also  receive  an  allowance  for  house-rent 
of  216-540  M. 

Assistant  teachers  (not  yet  definitely  appointed)  receive  1,800- 
2,400  M. 

Teachers  in  city  schools  receive  the  same  (or  better)  salaries  as 
those  in  the  government  schools. 

OTHER  GERMAN  STATES  :  In  most  other  states  the  regulations 
are  less  satisfactory  than  in  Prussia,  and  only  in  a  few  instances 
are  the  salaries  better.  In  Saxony  the  maximum  salary  of  a 
Rektor  of  a  state  Gymnasium  or  Realgymnasium  is  7, 500  M.  and 
residence  or  allowance  for  house-rent.  Sixty-seven  teachers  have 
salaries  reaching  6,600  M.,  while  the  others  (about  three-fourths 
of  all)  have  a  maximum  of  6,000  M.  The  initial  salary  is  2,800  M. 
No  allowance  is  made  for  house-rent,  except  in  the  boarding- 
schools  of  Grimma  and  Meissen.  Salaries  hi  Ltibeck,  Bremen 
and  Hamburg  are  higher  than  in  Prussia.  In  Ltibeck,  directors 
reach  9,000  M.  and  teachers  6,700  M.  (with  no  allowance  for 
house-rent).  In  Bremen,  directors  reach  8,500  M.,  and  teachers 
advance  from  3,500  to  7,000  M.  (with  no  allowance  for  house- 
rent).  In  Hamburg,  directors  reach  10,000  M.  and  residence  (or 
allowance),  and  teachers'  salaries  range  from  3,600  to  9,000  M., 
with  no  allowance  for  house-rent. 


APPENDIX 


PENSIONS  OF  TEACHERS  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 
OF  GERMANY 

Statislisches  Jahrbuch  der  Hoheren  Schulen,  1903-04- 


MINIMUM 
AMOUNT. 

AMOUNTS  IN  TERMS 
OF  THE  LAST  SAL- 
ART  AFTER 

MAXIMUM 
AMOUNT. 

Amount  of  yearly  dues. 

1 

• 
a 

•a 

0) 

« 

Amounts  to  % 
of  last  salary. 

Reached  after 

Amounts  to 

10  yrs. 

25  yrs. 

40  yrs 

1.  Prussia    and    Alsace-Lor- 
raine   

Yre. 

10 
4 
10 
10 
10 
5 
20 
0s 
0 
3« 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

0 
0 
0 
0 
10 
0 
10 
10 
0 

% 

25 
70 
30 
40 
30 
40 
50 
40 
50 
33* 
45 
25 
40 
33* 
40 

40 
33* 
40 
40 
30 
40 
33* 
40 
40 

% 

25 
70 
30 

% 

50 
80 
51 

% 

75 
90 
80 

3 

Yrs. 

40 
"46" 

% 

75 
100» 
80 

None. 

2.  Bavaria  

4   Wttrtemberg  

5.  Baden  

30 
50 

"46* 
50 

40.8 
45 
30 
40 
40.8 
40 

40 
50 
40 
40 
30 
40 
33* 
40 
40 

52.5 
72.5 
55 
62.5 
65 
63* 
60 
50 
62.5 
63* 
62.5 

62.5 
66} 
62.5 
62.5 
45 
62.5 
58* 
70 
62.5 

75 
90 
75 
80 
80 
85.8 
75 
80 
85 
85.8 
80 

80 

"so" 

80 
70 
80 
75 
80 
85 

40 
50 
50 
36 
50 
50 
40 
40 
50 
49 
36 

37 
25 
87 
87 
45 
87 
35 
30 
50 

75 
100 
90 
80 
90 
100 
75 
80 
100 
100 
80« 

80 
66* 
80 
80 
80 
80 
75 
80 
100 

None. 

3* 

None. 

2* 

None. 

6.  Hesse  

7.  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  
8.  Saxe-  Weimar  

9.  Oldenburg  

10.  Brunswick  

1  1    Saxe-Meiningen  

12.  Saxe-  Altenburg  
13.  Saxe-Coburg-Qotha  

14.  Anhalt  

15.  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  .  . 
16.  Schwarzburg  -  Sondershau- 
sen  

17.  Waldeck  

18.  Reuss,  a.  L  

19.  Reuss,  j.  L          

20.  Schaumburg-Lippe  

21.  Lippe-Detmold  .  .  . 

22.  Lttbeck  

23.  Bremen  

In  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  the  amount  of  pension  depends  on  the  will  of  the  Sovereign. 
1  Reached  at  seventy  years  of  age. 

*  The  teacher  pays  2f  toward  the  pension  fund.   The  pension  rises  with  every  year 
of  service — (a)  \\%  for  salaries  not  higher  than  2,400  marks  ;  (b)  H%  for  those  higher 
than  2,400  marks.    The  maximum  is  reached  at  40  years  of  service,  and  cannot  ex- 
ceed 6.000  marks. 

'  That  is,  immediately  after  permanent  appointment. 
4  The  pension  begins  to  rise  1  \%  only  after  five  years. 

*  After  fifty  years  of  service  the  pension  reaches  lOOjf. 

474 


APPENDIX  H 

EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  GENERAL  PENSION  LAWS 
OF  PRUSSIA  OF  1872,  1882,  1884  AND  1890 

1.  Every  official  drawing  salary  from  the  state  treasury  is  en- 
titled to  a  pension,  if  after  ten  years'  service  he  becomes  incapable, 
in  consequence  of  bodily  injury  or  physical  or  mental  weakness, 
of  performing  his  duties.  But  if  his  disability  is  the  result  of 
an  injury  or  disease  contracted  in  the  performance  of  his  official 
duties,  he  is  entitled  to  a  pension  even  before  the  expiration  of 
the  ten-year  period.  Those  who  have  reached  the  age  of  sixty- 
five  years  need  not  show  disability  in  order  to  receive  a  pension. 
2.  The  pension  laws  do  not  apply  to  teachers  in  universities; 
but  they  do  apply  to  teachers  and  officers  in  all  higher  schools, 
normal  schools,  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  blind,  art  schools 
and  Bilrgerschulen. 

3.  If  an  official  becomes  unable  to  perform  his  duties  before 
the  lapse  of  the  ten-year  period,  and  yet  does  not  come  under  (1), 
he  may  be  granted  a  pension  with  the  approval  of  the  crown. 

4.  A  pension  amounts  to  $£  of  the  last  total  income  if  an  offi- 
cial is  retired  after  ten  years'  service,  |$  after  eleven  years'  ser- 
vice and  so  on,  increasing  ^  up  to  forty  years'  service.    This 
gives  a  maximum  of  ||  of  the  last  salary. 

5.  Regular  allowances  and  supplies,  as  house  rent,  fuel,  etc., 
if  entered  on  the  budget  as  part  of  the  official's  remuneration, 
are  counted  for  pension. 

Thus,  an  official  with  a  salary  of  4,800  marks  and  492  marks 
for  house  rent  will  receive  on  retirement,  after  fifteen  years'  ser- 
vice, \%  of  5,292  marks,  or  1,764  marks,  annually. 

6.  An  official  who  accepts  voluntarily  a  position  at  a  lower 
salary  than  is  attached  to  the  office  to  which  he  is  justly  entitled 
receives  on  retirement  a  pension  estimated  on  the  basis  of  the 
higher  salary. 

475 


476  GERMAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

7.  Time  of  service  includes  time  spent  (a)  under  leave  of  ab- 
sence, (b)  in  the  service  of  the  North  German  Confederation,  (c) 
in  the  service  of  the  German  Empire,  (d)  in  technical  studies  re- 
quired for  admission  to  the  civil  service,  (e)  in  the  trial  year  of  a 
teacher,  (f)  in  the  military  service,  and  (g)  as  prisoner  of  war. 

8.  Pensions  are  paid  monthly,  in  advance. 

9.  No  pension  can  be  transferred  or  seized  for  debt. 

10.  A  pensioner  loses  the  right  to  state  aid  (a)  when  he  ceases 
to  be  a  German  subject,  and  (b)  when  he  receives  a  salary  for  ser- 
vice to  the  state  or  empire  which,  added  to  his  pension,  exceeds 
the  amount  of  his  original  salary.     In  the  latter  case,  he  may 
draw  such  part  of  his  salary  as  will  make  his  income  equal  to  his 
original  salary. 

The  pension  laws  are  strictly  applicable  to  teachers  in  schools 
supported  entirely  by  the  state.  Patrons  of  schools  which  are  in 
part  supported  by  the  state  must  provide  a  pension  schedule  at 
least  as  good  as  the  state  schedule  ;  they  may  do  better,  with  the 
approval  of  the  government.  No  provision  is  legally  made  for 
teachers  in  private  schools  and  schools  not  under  state  control. 
Such  teachers  must  rely  on  insurance  companies  and  organiza- 
tions for  mutual  assistance  of  members. 

PENSIONS  FOR  WIDOWS  AND  ORPHANS  OF  PRUSSIAN  HIGHER 
SCHOOL  TEACHERS. 

Extracts  from  Laws  of  1882  and  1897. 

1.  Widows  and  legitimate  children  of  public  officials  are  en- 
titled to  pensions,  if  the  official  himself  was  entitled  to  one. 

2.  A  widow's  pension  is  four-tenths  of  the  pension  which  her 
husband  would  have  received  if  he  had  been  regularly  retired  on 
the  day  of  his  death.     A  widow's  pension,  however,  cannot  be 
less  than  216,  or  more  than  2,000  marks. 

3.  The  pensions  of  orphans  whose  mother  is  living  are  each 
one-fifth  of  the  widow's  pension ;  in  case  of  the  death  of  both 
parents,  each  child  receives  one-third  of  the  pension  to  which 
the  widow  would  be  entitled.     But  in  no  case  can  the  total  pen- 
sion paid  to  the  family  of  a  deceased  official  amount  to  more 
than  he  himself  would  have  received  upon  retirement. 

4.  A  widow  is  not  entitled  to  a  pension  if  married  to  the  de- 
ceased within  three  months  of  his  death,  and  it  is  proved  that 
she  married  him  for  sake  of  the  pension. 


APPENDIX  H  477 

5.  Neither  the  widow  nor  her  children  are  entitled  to  a  pen- 
sion if  the  marriage  occurred  after  the  official's  retirement. 

6.  Pensions  of  widows  and  orphans  are  paid  monthly,  in  ad- 
vance. 

7.  Such  pensions  cannot  be  transferred  or  seized  for  debt. 

8.  The  pension  of  a  widow  or  an  orphan  lapses  upon  the  death 
or  marriage  of  the  person  receiving  it.     An  orphan's  pension 
lapses  when  the  person  reaches  the  age  of  eighteen  years. 


INDEX 


ADMINISTRATION,  school,    develop-          inspectors,  113 ;  of  state  exami- 


ment  of  central  control,  86-92; 
the  imperial  system  of,  108,  191 ; 
basis  of  Prussian  school  laws, 
109;  Prussian  administrative  sys- 
tem, 111;  department  of  educa- 
tion, 112 ;  provincial  school- 
boards,  113;  examination  com- 
mission, 114 ;  local  school-boards, 
116;  merits  of  Prussian  system, 
119 ;  in  other  states,  119 ;  restric- 
tions on  private  venture,  135 ;  dif- 
ficulties of,  due  to  established 
precedents,  141-143 ;  founding  of 
new  schools,  143  ff. ;  rules,  regu- 
lations and  customs,  156-174 ; 
examinations  and  privileges,  175- 
193 ;  in  relation  to  student  life, 
194  ff . ;  in  relation  to  school  offi- 
cers. 370-387 ;  tendencies  of 
school  reform,  388-405,  423-453 ; 
merits  and  defects  of  German 
secondary  education,  406-422 

Agricola,  20 

Alcuin,  5,  9,  10 

Allgemeine  Landrecht,  Prussia,  88, 
109 

Altenstein,  101,  102 

Altona  Reform  School,  251,  400- 
402,  440 

Appointment,  of  minister  of  educa- 
tion, 111 ;  of  provincial  school 


ners,  114 ;  of  local  school-boards, 

116;    of  teachers,    370   ft    See 

Teachers 
Architect,    duties  of   supervising, 

146 

Arndt,  79,  91 
Attendance,    compulsory     school, 

151, 407 
Auditorium  of  school  building,  150 ; 

used  on   public  occasions,  195 ; 

for  religious  exercises,  157,  164 

BADEN,  98, 125, 128,  248,  468,  474 

Basedow,  65 

Bavaria,  98, 124,  126, 127, 128,  249, 
471,  474 

Benedictines,  services  to  church 
and  school,  3 

Berlin,  Conference  of  1890,  105, 
390-398 ;  schools  and  school  ex- 
penses, 154 ;  University  of, 
founded,  93 

Bible,  and  the  Reformation,  28  ff. : 
in  German  schools,  213 

Boarding-schools,  196-212 ;  clien- 
tele of,  135 

Boards,  provincial  school,  organiza- 
tion and  duties  of,  113;  impor- 
tance of ,  119;  control  of  profes- 
sional training  of  teachers,  363 
ff. ;  of  appointment  and  promo- 


479 


486 


INDEX 


tion  of  teachers,  370  ff. ;  local 
school,  116 ;  organization  of,  116 ; 
powers  of,  117 

Boniface  Romanizes  and  Christian- 
izes Germany,  3 

Botany,  330,  333  ff.    See  Sciences 

Buildings,  school,  145  ff.  See 
Schools 

Bureaucracy,  triumph  of,  90 ;  Ger- 
man absolutism,  412 

Burschenschaften,  91 

CALENDAR,  Academic,  156 

Charles  the  Great,  first  general 
charter  of  education,  5;  educa- 
tional progress  under,  8 ;  the 
palace  school,  9 

Chemistry,  330,  343  ff.,  346.  See 
Sciences 

Church,  influence  of,  on  education, 
1, 16,  88, 406 ;  attitude  of,  toward 
city  schools,  12, 15 ;  toward  com- 
mon schools,  15 ;  and  the  Refor- 
mation, 23  ff. ;  development  of  a 
territorial,  in  Germany,  36 ;  and 
state,  89 ;  attendance,  164 ;  and 
religious  instruction,  224 

Cities,  function  of,  in  creating  a 
middle  class,  11 ;  rapid  growth 
of,  in  modern  Germany,  142 

City  schools,  rise  of,  13 ;  adminis- 
tration of,  117;  foundation  of, 
144 ;  for  girls,  129-132 ;  selection 
of  teachers  for,  371 

Civic  ideals  of  education,  develop- 
ment of,  76  ff. ;  as  evidenced  in 
examination  system,  175  ff. ;  in 
system  of  privileges,  189 ;  atti- 
tude of  the  government,  389; 
service  of  the  state,  406-412 ;  the 
German  point  of  view,  420 

Civil  service,  in  Prussia,  90;  con- 
ditions of  admission  to,  192,  469 ; 


teachers  members  of,  352-354; 
oath  of  office,  372 

Class  distinctions,  evils  of,  420 

Class-master,  380 ;  duties  of,  381 

Class  rooms,  specifications  for  and 
dimensions  of,  145,  146  ;  lighting 
of,  147;  heating  of,  148;  venti- 
lation of,  148 ;  seating  of,  149 ; 
equipment  of,  149.  See  School 
Buildings 

Classes,  in  Gymnasium,  122 ;  in 
Progymnasium,  124 ;  in  Real- 
schulen,  127;  in  girls'  Gymna- 
sien,  132 

Clergy,  low  condition  of,  in  the  time 
of  Charles  the  Great,  9 ;  attitude 
toward  secular  schools,  12 ;  need 
of  trained,  in  Reformation,  28; 
Luther's  appeal  for  schools  for, 
31,  34 ;  Landesschulen  for,  in 
Saxony,  38 ;  in  Wurtemberg,  41 ; 
Jesuits,  47;  and  religious  in- 
struction, 224 

Co-education,  129, 132.  See  Women 

Columban,  1 

Comenius,  58,  59,  291,  389 

Compulsory  school  laws,  151,407; 
suggested  by  Luther,  30  ff.  See 
Schools 

Conference,  Berlin,  of  December, 
1890,  105,  390-398 

Conference  of  1900,  427 

Constitution  of  Prussia,  88,  100. 
See  Allgemeine  Landrecht 

Courses  of  study,  in  religion,  213 
ff. ;  in  German,  227  ff. ;  in  Greek 
and  Latin,  245  ff. ;  in  modern 
languages,  266  ff. ;  in  history 
and  geography,  291  ff. ;  in  mathe- 
matics, 312  ff. ;  in  the  natural  sci- 
ences, 329  ff.  See  Curriculum 

Culture  studies,  employed  by  early 
humanists,  17-19, 24,  35 ;  at  vari- 


IXDEK 


481 


ance  with  aims  of  the  reformers, 
27  ff. ;  Sturm's  position,  42-44; 
influence  of  French  ideals,  51, 
54;  of  pietism  and  rationalism, 
60 ;  return  to  the  Greeks,  71  ff. ; 
modern  problems,  95 

Curriculum,  of  the  Prussian  Gym- 
nasium, 123 ;  comparative  table, 
124;  of  Prussian  Realgymna- 
sium,  125 ;  comparative  table, 
126 ;  of  Prussian  Oberrealschule, 
128;  of  Prussian  Hohere  Mad- 
chenschule,  131,  464 

Lehrplan  of  1816, 97 ;  place 

of  Greek  and  Latin  in,  247 ;  of 
French,  267;  of  history,  293; 
of  mathematics,  312 ;  of  sciences, 
330 

Lehrplan  of  1837, 247 ;  place 


of  Greek  and  Latin  in,  247 ;  of 
French,  267 ;  of  mathematics,  312 
Lehrplan  of  1859, 104 ;  prob- 


lem of  the  Realgymnasium,  393- 
399 

Lehrplan  of  1882, 248;  place 


of  Greek  and  Latin  in,  248;  of 
French,  268,  270 ;  of  mathemat- 
ics, 312 

Lehrplan  of  1892,  248,  249 ; 


place  of  Greek  and  Latin  in,  248 ; 
of  French,  268 ;  of  other  modern 
languages,  289;  of  history,  294; 
of  mathematics,  312 ;  of  sciences, 
330 

Lehrplan  of  1901,  464 


Customs,  rules,  regulations  and, 
156-174 

DEFECTIVE  CHILDREN,  administra- 
tion of  schools  for,  113 

Deventer,  20 

Director,  selection  of,  376;  instal- 
lation of,  378;  duties  of,  378- 


380,  382 ;  salaries  of,  in  Prussia 
and  other  German  States,  472 

Disciplinary  studies,  74.  See  Cult- 
ure Studies 

Discipline,  161-171,  211 

Drinking  customs,*  165 

EDUCATION,  history  of,  in  Germany, 
1-107 

Elementary,  in  Middle  Ages, 

15 ;  after  the  Reformation,  28  ff.; 
in  Wiirtemberg,  40;  revival  of, 
under  Humboldt,  92;  adminis- 
tration of,  113 

Secondary,  in  Middle  Ages, 


2  ff. ;  church  schools,  8 ;  human- 
istic schools,  25;  protestant 
schools,  37-44;  schools  for  no- 
bles, 71  ff. ;  Real-schools,  64 ;  re- 
cent reforms  in,  86  ff. ;  present 
tendencies  in,  388-405 ;  merits 
and  defects  of,  406-422 ;  admin- 
istration of,  in  Prussia,  108-120 ; 
higher  schools  of  Prussia,  121- 
137;  foundation  and  maintenance 
of  higher  schools,  138-155 ;  rules, 
regulations  and  customs  of,  156- 
174;  examinations  and  privileges, 
175-193 ;  student  life  in  higher 
schools,  194-212 ;  methods  of  in- 
struction in,  213-351 ;  profes- 
sional training  of  teachers  for, 
352-369 ;  appointment,  promo- 
tion and  emoluments  of  teachers, 
370-387 

Higher,  in  Middle  Ages,  13 ; 


spread  of  humanism,  24;  found- 
ing of  protestant  universities,  36; 
decadence  of,  50-55 ;  founding 
of  Halle,  61 ;  work  of  Humboldt, 
93;  university  influence  on  sec- 
ondary education,  114,  355-361 
406,  413-419 


482 


INDEX 


Einheitsschule,  399  ff. 

Eisleben,  37 

Elective  studies,  65,  123,  266  ff., 
420,449 

English,  instruction  in,  266  ff. ;  con- 
troversies about,  272,  449 ;  gym- 
nasial  course  of  study  in,  273, 274 ; 
Real-school  course  of  study  in, 
275-277;  typical  lessons,  278-282; 
direct  method,  283-288 ;  training 
of  teachers  of,  288,  289 

Enlightenment,  coincident  with 
Frederick  the  Great,  62  ;  motives 
of,  63 ;  influence  of,  on  educa- 
tion, 63-75 

Erasmus,  20,  21,  24 

Ernesti,  73 

Examinations,  students'  final,  88, 
90, 96 ;  subjects  of  final,  in  Gym- 
nasium, 182 ;  in  other  higher 
schools,  185 ;  in  six-year  schools, 
186;  in  the  mid-course,  187; 
examining  board,  181 ;  privi- 
leges attached  to,  189-193;  in 
mathematics,  325 ;  in  sciences, 
384 

teachers',  97 ;  organization 

of  commission,  114, 115, 356-358; 
development  of,  352-355;  pur- 
pose of,  356;  subjects  of,  357; 
conduct  of,  359-361 ;  grade  and 
rank  of  certificates  for,  357,  361, 
362;  in  professional  training, 
363,  364,  368;  of  directors,  378; 
results,  407,  410 

FEUDALISM,  influence  of,  on  educa- 
tion, 10 

Fichte,  80,  84 

Francke,  63-65,  329 

Franckesche  Stiftungen,  134,  368 

Frankfort  plan,  of  shorter  courses, 
136,  252,  399,  402;  Lehrplan, 


Gymnasium  and  Realgymna- 
sium,  136,  438,  464 

Frederick  the  Great,  reforms  of, 
62,  87 ;  on  the  study  of  French, 
267 ;  on  the  study  of  history,  291- 
293 ;  on  the  training  of  teachers, 
352-354 

French,  instruction  in,  266  ff. ;  his- 
torical development  of,  266-268 ; 
controversies  about,  272 ;  gymna- 
sial  course  of  study  in,  273,  274 ; 
Real-school  course  of  study  in, 
275-277;  methods  of  teaching, 
278;  typical  lessons,  282;  direct 
method,  283-288;  training  of 
teachers  for,  288,  289 

Frick,  297,  298,  309,  368 

Fries,  368 

Furstenschulen,  38,  39,  196-198 

GEDIKE,  73,  74,  88, 124,  245,  246 

Geography,  297 ;  relation  to  history, 
298;  Jena  course  of  study,  298 ff.; 
methods  of  teaching,  299,  300  ff. ; 
correlation  with  other  studies, 
308 ;  criticisms,  309-311 

German,  instruction  in,  227-244; 
aim  of,  227;  historical  develop- 
ment of,  229 ;  Prussian  course  of 
study  in,  230,  235,  239;  gram- 
mar, 231,  236;  literature,  228, 
236,  238,  241;  composition,  234, 
236,  240;  ideals  and  results  of, 
243 

Gesner,  72,  97 

Giessen,  University  seminar,  367 

Girls,  schools  for,  in  Prussia,  129 ; 
in  Berlin,  155;  in  Hamburg,  133; 
curriculum  of,  131;  Gymnasien 
for,  132 ;  problems  of  education 
of,  416-420.  See  Women 

Goethe,  71,84,  101 

Greek,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  9 ;  the 


INDEX 


483 


revival  of  letters,  18,  20,  23,  25 ; 
Luther's  attitude  toward,  32  ff. ; 
in  protestant  schools,  37-44 ;  and 
the  new  humanism,  70-75 ;  later 
development,  95  ff.,  245-249 ;  in 
the  curriculum,  98,  99,  101,  104, 
450,  123,  124,  136,  137,  245  ff. ; 
instruction  in,  245  ff. ;  methods 
of  teaching,  258 ;  text-books,  264 ; 
criticisms,  264 

Grimma,  38,  98,  140,  144 

Gymnasium,  so-called  since  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
39:  official  designation,  96;  ob- 
ject of,  74,  122 ;  original  aim  of, 
138 ;  some  old  foundations,  138- 
140;  Lehrplan  of  Prussian,  123, 
464;  comparative  curricula  of, 
in  Prussia,  Bavaria,  etc.,  124, 
468;  function  and  position  of, 
124;  teachers  in,  officers  of  the 
state,  110;  numbers  of,  and  at- 
tendance at,  125,  140;  educa- 
tional problem  of,  397  ff.  See 
Altona,  Frankfort,  Civic  Ideals, 
Conference,  Curriculum,  Greek, 
Latin,  Realgymnasium 

HALLE,  the  first  modern  university, 
61 ;  university  seminar,  368 

Hardenburg,  77,  78 

Head-masters.    See  Directors 

Hegel,  84,  100,  101 

Hegius,  20,  23 

Herbart,  99,  292,  302 

Herder,  71,  84,  94,  95 

Hesse,  128,  248,  468,  474 

Higher  Schools,  definition  of,  121 ; 
aim  "of,  175  ff.;  statistics  of,  in 
Germany,  436.  See  Gymnasium, 
Realgymnasium,  Realschulen 

History,  instruction  in,  201  ff. ; 
Comeiiius  on,  291 ;  historical  de- 


velopments of,  291;  Frederick 
the  Great  on  the  study  of,  291, 
293 ;  subject-matter  used  in  in- 
struction, 294  ff. ;  Prussian  course 
of  study  in,  295 ;  Jena  course  of 
study  in,  299  ff. ;  methods  of 
teaching,  300  ff. ;  correlation  with 
other  subjects,  308;  criticisms, 
309-311 

Holidays,  157.     See  Calendar 

Home  study,  158,  160,  315 

Honours  attached  to  the  teaching 
profession  in  Germany,  375 

Humanism,  in  Germany  in  the  fif- 
teenth century,  20 ;  rapid  spread 
of,  24,  25,  26;  influence  of,  44; 
and  Lutheranism,  34, 44 ;  Sturm's 
position,  42,  43;  repression  of, 
by  counter- Reformation,  47;  by 
French  ideals,  51  ff. ;  by  Thirty 
Years'  War,  52 ;  by  pietism,  59 
ff. ;  revival  of,  69-75 ;  incorpo- 
rated in  school  curricula,  95  ff. ; 
tendencies  of  school  reform,  388- 
405,  423-453 

Humboldt,  89,  92-94,  101 ;  on  the 
training  of  teachers,  354 

Hygiene,  school,  145-149,  159,  160, 
408 

IDEALISM,  German,  83,  413 
Imperial  school  commission,  191 
Instruction.    See  Courses  of  Study, 
Curriculum 

JAEGER,  264,  396 

Jena,  University,  founding  of,  36  ; 
Gymnasium,  302,  341 ;  seminar, 
367 

Jesuits,  47  ff. ;  success  of,  48.  49; 
influence  on  German  school  sys- 
tem, 49;  evidences  of  the  work 
of,  139 


484 


INDEX 


Journeys,  school,  in  Stoy  school, 
209-211 ;  excursions,  300, 335,  341 

KANT,  83,  84 
Kiepert,  297 
Kirchner,  224 
Klinghardt,  272 
Klopstock,  71 
Ktihn,  272 

LABORATORIES  in  school  buildings, 
150;  for  science  teaching,  339, 
348 

Landesschulen,  38,  39, 196, 198 

Lange,  132 

Latin,  in  various  curricula,  2, 8, 13, 
15,  18,  25,  38,  40,  66,  74,  96,  98, 
99,  101,  103,  104,  123,  124,  125, 
126,  136,  137, 142 ;  first  begins  to 
give  way  to  the  vernacular,  15 ; 
in  the  Renaissance  period,  19, 
23, 25 ;  in  the  protestant  schools, 
32,  33-44;  reaction  against  for- 
malism in  teaching,  66  ff.;  re- 
cent development  of,  99  ff.,  246 
ff. ;  instruction  in,  245  ff. ;  Prus- 
sian course  of  study  in  Gymna- 
sium, 254  ff. ;  methods  of  teach- 
ing, 258  ff. ;  text-books,  264; 
criticisms,  264 ;  in  the  Realgym- 
nasium,  249 ;  Prussian  course  of 
study  in,  254  ff. ;  educational 
problems,  393-405,  423-453 

Lehrfreiheit,  beginning  of,  in  Ger- 
many, 61 ;  recent  attempts  at  re- 
striction of,  413-415 

Leibnitz,  56 

Leipsic,  University,  14,  25,  36,  61, 
133 ;  seminar,  367 

Lessing,  71 

Libraries,  defects  and  merits  of 
school,  150;  defects  of  cata- 
loguing. 150, 151;  system  through- 


out Germany  prevailingly  bad, 
151 ;  redeeming  features,  151 ; 
pupils  may  not  use  public,  166 
Luther,  25  ff. ;  insight  into  edu- 
cational needs  in  Reformation 
times  in  Germany,  28 ;  on  school 
curricula,  33;  on  school  libra- 
ries, 33;  and  Melanchthon,  34, 
37;  on  instruction  in  religion, 
213 

MXDCHENSCHULE,  H5here.  See 
Girls'  Schools,  Women 

Manual  training  in  Stoy  school,  206 

Marking  system,  177,  178 

Mathematics,  instruction  in,  312- 
328 ;  arithmetic,  314  ff. ;  algebra, 
314,  322  ff. ;  geometry,  319,  321, 
324 ;  course  of  study  in  Realgym- 
nasium,  314,  320,  323 ;  Austrian 
methods,  317,  318 ;  final  exami- 
nations in,  325 ;  criticisms,  326- 
328 

Meierotto,  73 

Meissen,  38,  98,  140, 144, 197 

Melanchthon,  and  Erasmus,  23 ; 
and  Luther,  34,  37 ;  pedagogical 
ideas  of,  35 ;  as  an  organizer,  36, 
37 

Middle  Ages,  German  education 
during,  1-16;  ideals  of,  17 

Militarism,  effects  on  education,  78, 
121,  161,  162,  200,  212,  383,  411 

Mittelschulen,  130.    See  Schools 

Mosellanus,  23 

Muff,  262,  264 

Museums,  school,  for  teaching  sci- 
ences, 336 

Music,  in  mediseval  church  schools, 
4,  8,  13 ;  in  protestant  schools, 
37,  38,  40;  in  teaching  patriot- 
ism, 79,  93 ;  in  school  curricula. 
See  Curriculum 


INDEX 


485 


NATURAL  HISTORY,  330,  333-341. 
See  Sciences 

Nature  study,  341-343.  See  Sci- 
ences 

Nuremberg,  25 

OBERREALSCHULE,  104,  105;  grad- 
uates of,  127 ;  Lehrplan,  128, 466 ; 
numbers,  128.  See  Realschule 

Oberschulcollegium,  87-89.  See 
Administration 

Ordinarius,  380.    See  Class-master 

PAULSEN,  23,  37,  74,  394,  430,  447, 
450 

Pensions,  of  teachers,  386 ;  compar- 
ative table  for  all  German  states, 
474 ;  extracts  from  the  general 
pension  laws  of  Prussia,  475 ;  for 
widows  and  orphans  of  higher 
school  teachers,  476 

Pestalozzi,  92,  297 

Pforta.     See  Schulpforta 

Philanthropinists,  66 

Philosophy,  scholastic,  11 ;  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  55  ff. ;  ra- 
tionalistic, 59  ff. ;  German  ideal- 
ism, 83,  84 ;  the  romantic  school, 
85 

Physical  training  in  Stoy  school, 
207 ,  Turnhalle,  147 

Physics,  343-346.    See  Sciences 

Pietism,  60,  64 

Play  -  grounds,  146.  See  School 
Buildings 

Principal.    See  Director 

Privileges,  system  of,  189-193 ;  mil- 
itary service,  190 ;  university 
study,  192 .  state  examinations, 
192 ;  tabulated  statement  of,  469, 
471 ;  relation  to  school  reforms, 
397,  404.  415.  424 


Professions,  preparation  of  students 
for,  174.  See  Privileges 

Program,  school.  See  Calendar, 
Courses  of  Study,  Curriculum 

Progymnasium,  124.  See  Gymna- 
sium 

Promotion,  of  pupils,  conditions 
of,  177,  189;  of  teachers,  370- 
383 

Protestant  schools,  rise  and  charac- 
ter of,  22,  23,  26-45;  and  the 
counter-Reformation,  46,  47,  50, 
52-54 ;  reaction  against,  66 

Pr  iif  ungscom  mission,  Wissenschaf  t- 
liche,  114, 115, 352-358.  See  Ex- 
aminations, Teachers' 

Prussia,  development  of,  76 ;  con- 
stitution of,  109;  and  War  of 
Liberation,  77;  civil  and  military 
reforms^  78-82;  central  control 
in  school  administration,  86-92 ; 
school  system  of,  108-120;  higher 
schools  of,  121-137;  old  schools 
of,  138-142;  school-year  in,  156; 
system  of  examinations  and  priv- 
ileges of,  175-193,  468;  profes- 
sional training  of  teachers  in, 
352-369 ;  appointment,  promo- 
tion, and  emoluments  of  teachers 
in,  370-387 ;  tendencies  of  school 
reform  in,  388-405;  merits  and 
defects  of  secondary  education 
in,  406-422;  attendance  in  higher 
schools  of,  435-438 ;  salary  sched- 
ules in,  472,  extracts  from  pen- 
sion laws  of,  474 

Publications,  student,  166 

Punishments  in  schools,  167.  See 
Discipline 

QUADRIVIUM,  4  ff. 
Quiehl,  272,  278 
Quint iliun,  24 


486 


INDEX 


RATIONALISM,  59,  62  ff. 

Ratke,  68 

Ratzel,  297 

Realgymnasium,  rise  of,  64,  104, 
105;  aim  of,  125;  Lehrplan  of 
Prussian,  125,  465 ;  comparative 
curricula  of,  in  Prussia,  Bavaria, 
etc.,  126 ;  position  of(  126,  423  ff. ; 
similar  to  American  high  school, 
126, 127 ;  number  of,  in  the  states 
of  Germany,  127;  attendance,  127; 
examinations  in,  185;  Latin  in, 
249;  Prussian  Latin  course  in, 
254-257;  modern  languages  in, 
274  ff. ;  mathematics  in,  312  ff. ; 
natural  sciences  in,  345  ff. ;  the 
problem  of,  393-399,  415;  priv- 
ileges of,  464,  471 

Realschule,  rise  of,  64, 65, 104 ;  aim 
of,  127;  Lehrplan  of,  in  Prussia, 
128,  464;  in  Wurtemberg,  128; 
numbers  in  German  states,  128 ; 
examinations  in,  186;  modern 
languages  in,  274  ff. ;  mathe- 
matics in,  312  ff. ;  natural  sciences 
in,  345  ff. ;  recent  growth  of,  392, 
435;  outlook  for,  250,  389,  392, 
394,  415,  432 ;  privileges  of,  469, 
471 ;  attitude  of  teachers  toward, 
326,  340 

Reformation,  influence  of,  on  edu- 
cation in  Germany,  22,  26-45, 
138 ;  counter,  47.  See  Luther 

Reformschule,  251  ff. ;  Frankfort 
plan,  399,  402-404,  440 ;  Altona, 
400-402,440;  recent  growth  of, 
404,440 

Rein,  367 

Reinhardt,  262,  422,  444 

Religion,  Luther's  position,  27-32, 
84,  37,  38,  213 ;  supervision  of,  in 
schools,  115,164;  preferences  of 
students,  173;  instruction  in,  218- 


226;  teachers  of,  214;  Prussian 
course  of  study  in,  216-218 ;  con- 
firmation, 220 ;  subject  matter  of 
instruction  in,  220;  text-books, 
221 ;  defects  of  the  system  of  in- 
struction, 223  ff. 

Renaissance,  ideals  of,  17,  20;  in- 
fluence of,  19-22,  24-26, 138 

Reuchlin,  20,  21,  23 

Richter,  262,  298,  367 

Ritter,  297 

Ritterakademie,  52,  54,  56 

Romantic  school  of  philosophy,  85 

Rossleben,  197 

Rules,  regulations  and  customs  for 
guidance  of  students,  156-174 

SALARIES,  teachers',  154,  384,  385 ; 
official  schedules  of,  in  Prussia, 
Bavaria,  Saxony,  Wurtemberg, 
472 

Saxony,  school  system  of,  in  1538, 
37 ;  in  1580,  41 ;  old  schools  of, 
144,  197,  198;  teachers'  salaries 
in,  472 ;  pensions  in,  474 

Schiller  (Fr.),  71,  84 

Schiller  (Prof.  H.),  306,  367 

Schlee,  400 

Scholarships,  36,  41,  152,  153 

Scholasticism,  influence  of,  on  edu- 
cation, 11 ;  tendency  toward,  in 
seventeenth  century,  50 

Schools,  boarding,  133,  134,  135, 
140, 196 ff.;  cathedral, 8;  church, 
133 ;  city,  designed  for  the 
middle  classes,  12;  foundations 
of,  144 ;  status  of,  117, 143 ;  clois- 
tral, 41,  98;  common,  15;  com- 
mercial, 133 ;  Einheitsschule,  399 
ff. ;  Fttrstenschule,  38,  39;  girls', 
129 ;  present  status  of,  130,  131 ; 
Gymnasium,  see  Gymnasium ; 
higher,  definition  of,  121 ;  classi- 


INDEX 


487 


fication  of,  122 ;  aim  of,  175  ff. ; 
attendance  upon,  in  Prussia  from 
1894-1903, 435 ;  list  of  privileged, 
468 ;  Huhere  Miidchenschule,  129- 
131 ;  Jesuit,  see  Jesuits ;  Landes- 
schule,  38, 39 ;  Mittelschule,  136 ; 
normal,  113;  Oberrealschule,  see 
Oberrealschule ;  protestant,  first, 
37;  private,  status  of,  111,  116, 
118;  Progymnasium,  124;  Real- 
gymnasium,  see  Realgymnasium ; 
Realschule,  see  Realschule ;  Re- 
formschule,  see  Reformschule ; 
secondary,  see  Education ;  state, 
status  of,  117;  ideals  of,  389; 
Stoy  school,  199  ff. ;  union  (Ein- 
heitsschule),  399  ff. ;  Volksschule, 
129;  destroyed  by  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  54;  history  of  sec- 
ondary, 1-107 ;  supervision  of, 
382 ;  ecclesiastical  supervision  of, 
215;  first  step  in  secularization 
of,  88 ;  administrative  system  of, 
111 ;  maintenance  of,  153 ;  ex- 
pense of  maintenance  in  Prussia, 
153 ;  inter-relations,  135 ;  pun- 
ishments, 167;  regulations  of  a 
typical  school,  168  ff. ;  some  old, 
138,  139,  140 ;  confessional  char- 
acter of,  214 ;  reform  of,  388  ff. ; 
conference  of  December,  1890, 
105,390;  of  1900,  424 
School  system,  of  Saxony,  37,  38, 
41 ;  complete,  first  organized  in 
Wurtemberg,  40;  centralization 
of,  86-96 ;  not  imperial  in  Ger- 
many, 108;  and  the  state,  99, 
105,  106,  109,  110,  406-412;  a 
product  of  German  ideals,  107, 
406-  412 ;  the  Prussian,  108-120 ; 
merits  of  the  Prussian,  119;  in 
the  smaller  German  states,  119 ; 
sources  of  chief  defects  of,  412 ; 


expense  of  maintenance  in  Prus- 
sia, 153 ;  in  Berlin,  154,  155 

School  buildings,  construction  and 
equipment  of,  146,  245 ;  location 
of,  146 ;  lighting  of,  147 ;  venti- 
lation of,  148 ;  heating  of,  148 ; 
seating  of,  149;  general  equip- 
ment of,  149 ;  equipment  of,  for 
teaching  sciences,  331 ;  audito- 
rium of,  150;  hygienic  precau- 
tions, 408 

School  laws,  not  codified  in  Prus- 
sia, 108;  basis  of,  109;  rule  of 
precedent  binding,  111  ff. ;  com- 
pulsory, 407 

School  year,  156 

Schulpforta,  38,  95,  98,  140,  144, 
197,  198 

Schulze,  99,  247 

Sciences,  development  of,  and  in- 
fluence on  educational  ideals,  56, 
57,  63-66,  102-105;  instruction 
in,  329  ff. ;  historical  develop- 
ment of,  329, 330 ;  chief  aim,  330 ; 
equipment  for  teaching,  331 ; 
Prussian  course  of  study — nat- 
ural history,  333;  physics  and 
chemistry,  343  ff. ;  school  mu- 
seums, 336;  methods  of  teach- 
ing, 337-339;  laboratory  work, 
339,  348 ;  nature  study,  341-343 ; 
final  examinations,  348,  349 ;  re- 
cent tendencies,  351 

Secondary  education  schools.  See 
Education 

Seminars,  pedagogical,  early  foun- 
dations, 97 ;  state,  365 ;  gymna- 
sial,  365 ;  university,  367 

Sessions,  daily,  157.    See  Calendar 

Sievers,  297 

Social  rank,  of  students,  172;  of 
teachers,  326,  340,  375;  results, 
420 


488 


INDEX 


State,  control  of  school  system,  86- 
96,  108-120,  409;  influence  on 
education,  406,  407-412;  and 
compulsory  school  laws,  407 ; 
and  hygienic  precautions,  408 ; 
and  uniform  curricula,  409 ;  and 
teaching  profession,  410 

Stein,  77,  78,  89,  90,  93,  354 

Stoy  school,  199;  regulations  of, 
200 ;  student  life  in,  202-212 

Students,  rules,  regulations  and 
customs,  156-174;  non-resident, 
163 ;  social  rank  of,  172 ;  condi- 
tions of  promotion  of,  177;  ex- 
amination of,  178-179;  life  in 
higher  schools,  194  ff. ;  public  ex- 
ercises, 195;  privileges  attached 
to  completion  of  various  grades 
of  higher  schools,  189-193 

Studies.    See  Courses,  Curriculum 

Study,  home,  158, 160,  315 

Sturm,  42,  43,  141,  389 

Suicides  among  school  children  in 
Germany,  147 

Superintendent.    See  Director 

Supervision.    See  Administration 

Silvern,  96 

TEACHERS,  training  of  professional, 
97, 352-369 ;  university  study  for, 
355 ;  state  examinations,  356 ; 
examination  commission,  358 ; 
conduct  of  examinations,  360 ; 
subjects  for  examinations,  357; 
certification  of,  95,  114,  115,  357, 
361,  362;  university  degrees, 
358;  trial  teaching,  97,  98,  364, 
368 ;  seminar  year,  364 ;  present 
requirements, 364;  Prussian  semi- 
nars, 365;  university  courses, 
367,  368 ;  religious  training,  215 ; 
of  religion,  duties  of,  215;  gen- 
eral duties  of  teachers,  381,  382 ; 


women  as,  130.  See  Women ;  ten- 
ure of  office,  defects,  383 ;  officers 
of  state,  161,  162;  professional 
strength  of,  411 ;  appointment 
of,  114,  118,  370  ff.;  in  royal 
schools,  371 ;  in  city  schools,  371 ; 
oath  of  office,  372 ;  waiting  pe- 
riod, 373;  salaries,  384;  salary 
schedules  in  Prussia,  472  ;  Bava- 
ria, 472 ;  Saxony,  472 ,  Wiirtem- 
berg,  472;  travelling  stipends, 
386 ;  honours,  375 ;  pensions,  118, 
386;  comparative  table  of  pen- 
sions for  the  German  states,  474 ; 
for  widows  and  orphans,  476 ; 
pension  laws  of  Prussia,  475 

Teaching,  freedom  of,  61,  413-415 ; 
methods  of.  See  Religion,  Greek, 
Latin,  etc. 

Tenure  of  office  of  teachers,  383, 
386,  407,  410 

Text-books,  for  protestant  schools, 
35;  control  of,  113,  114;  nature 
of,  in  religion,  221 ;  in  German, 
231,  233;  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
264;  in  French  and  English, 
274,  288;  in  history,  307;  in 
mathematics,  321,  322;  in  sci- 
ences, 346 

Thiersch,  98 

Thirty  Years'  War,  evil  conse- 
quences of,  52,  53,  54 

Thomasius,  61,  68 

Thurber,  398 

Travelling  stipends  for  teachers, 
386 

Trial  year  of  teaching,  97,  98,  364, 
368 

Trivium,  4  ff. 

Trustees,  powers  of  school,  117 

Tuition,  in  royal  secondary  schools, 
151, 152 ;  in  city  schools,  152 

Turnhalle,  147 


INDEX 


489 


UHLIG,  396,  434 

Universities,  founding  of  Paris,  13 ; 
founding  of,  in  Germany,  14 ; 
protestant,  36;  decadence  of,  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  55; 
founding  of  Berlin,  93;  influence 
on  secondary  education,  406, 413- 
416;  idealism  of,  413;  struggle 
between  the  state  and,  413;  Lehr- 
freiheit  in,  414;  defects  of,  415  ff. ; 
foster  gymnasial  monopoly,  415 ; 
oppose  admission  of  women,  416 ; 
Giessen,  seminar,  367 ;  Halle,  61, 
368;  Jena,  seminar,  367 ;  Leipsic, 
seminar,  367 

VACATIONS,  156 
Victor,  271,  272,  273 
Volksschulen,  15,  33,  40,  54,  64,  92, 
129 


WAETZOLDT,  272,  417 
Walter,  272,  280,  282,  283,  284 
War    of    Liberation  —  Humboldt, 

Arndt,    Fichte,    77;    effects  of, 

81  ff. 
Weimar,  95,  314,  323 


Wernekke,  314 

William  II.,  views  on  educational 
matters,  105,  143,  389,  392,  461 

Wimpheling,  20,  23 

Windscheid,  132 

Wittenberg,  25 

Wittich,  313 

Wolf,  74,  93,  94,  95,  96,  97,  99, 101, 
245,  292 

Wolff,  61,  68 

Women,  teachers'  association  of, 
129;  as  teachers,  130;  higher 
education  of,  416-420 ;  admission 
to  universities,  416 ;  admission 
to  professions,  419 ;  attitude  of 
Prussian  state  toward  education 
of,  419.  See  Girls'  Schools 

Wiirtemberg,  school  system  of,  first 
complete,  40;  school  curricula, 
98,  124-128, 249 ;  schools  of,  471 ; 
teachers'  salaries  in,  472  •,  teach- 
ers' pensions  in,  474 

ZEDLITZ,  73,  87,  88,  293 

Zeller,  92 

Ziegler,  395,  411 

Zoology,  330,  333  ff.    See  Sciences 


AMERICAN  TEACHERS  SERIES 

Edited  by  JAMES  E.  RUSSELL,  Ph.D. 

DEAN    OF    TEACHERS    COLLEGE.    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 


In  all  the  field  of  education  there  are  no  problems  more  difficult  to 
solve  than  those  pertaining  to  the  work  of  the  secondary  school.  What 
is  the  aim  of  secondary  education  ?  What  is  its  function  in  modern 
society?  What  knowledge  is  of  most  worth?  What  means  and 
methods  produce  the  best  results  ?  Such  questions  as  these  come  to 
every  secondary  teacher  and  demand  an  answer.  The  most  encourag- 
ing sign  of  the  times  is  the  growth  of  a  teaching  profession  pledged  to 
study  these  problems  intelligently  and  to  find  some  rational  solution 
of  them. 

The  "  American  Teachers  Series  "  will  review  the  principal  subjects 
of  the  secondary  school  curriculum.  The  purpose  is  to  discuss  the 
educational  value  of  each  subject,  the  reasons  for  including  it  in  the 
curriculum,  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  materials  in  the  course, 
the  essential  features  of  class  instruction,  and  the  various  helps  which 
are  available  for  teachers'  use.  The  books  are  not  intended  to  correct 
the  faults  of  ignorant  teaching ;  they  are  not  put  forth  as  manuals  of 
infallible  methods.  They  are  designed  to  be  contributions  to  the  pro- 
fessional knowledge  necessary  in  secondary  education,  and  are  ad- 
dressed to  teachers  of  liberal  culture  and  special  scholarship  who  are 
seeking  to  make  their  knowledge  more  useful  to  their  pupils  and  their 
pupils  more  useful  to  the  State. — From  the  Editor  s  Preface, 


The  f oll<rMing  volumes  are  published: 

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NETT and  GEORGE  P.  BRISTOL,  Cornell  University.  Crown  8vo.  354 
pages.  $..50 

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University.  Crown  8vo.  384  pages.  $1.50 

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NEWTON  SCOTT,  of  the  University  of  Michigan.  Crown  Svo.  390 
pages.  $1.50. 

The  Teaching  of  Mathematics.    By  Professor  J.  W.  A.  YOUNG,  Uni- 

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